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r/je  ^PRESENTATION  of 
CHRISTIANITY  TO 
MOSLEMS 


BOARD  OF  MISSIONARY  PREPARATION 
25  Madison  Avenue,  New  York 


PRICE  50  CENTS 


BOARD  OF  MISSIONARY  PREPARATION 


Professor  Frederick  L.  Anderson,  D.D. 
Reverend  James  L.  Barton,  D.D. 
Professor  Harlan  P.  Beach,  D.D. 

David  Bovaird,  M.D. 

Professor  O.  E.  Brown,  D.D. 

Professor  Ernest  DeWitt  Burton,  D.D. 
Miss  Helen  B.  Calder 
Professor  Ekiward  W.  Capen,  Ph.D. 
Professor  W.  O.  Carver,  D.D. 

Reverend  Wm.  I.  Chamberlain,  Ph.D. 
Reverend  George  Drach 
Reverend  James  Endicott,  D.D. 
Professor  Daniel  J.  Fleming,  Ph.D. 
Dean  H.  E.  W.  Fosbroke,  D.D. 

Miss  Margaret  E.  Hodge 
President  Henry  C.  King,  D.D. 
Professor  Walter  L.  Lingle,  D.D. 

Right  Reverend  Arthur  S.  Lloyd,  D.D. 
R.  P.  Mackay,  D.D. 

W.  Douglas  Mackenzie,  D.D. 
Paul  Monroe,  Ph.D. 

R.  Mott,  LL.D, 

Reverend  Frank  Mason  North,  D.D. 
Principal  T.  R.  O’Meara,  D.D. 
President  C.  T.  Paul,  Ph.D. 

Professor  Henry  B.  Robins,  Ph.D. 
Professor  T.  H.  P.  Sailer,  Ph.D. 

Miss  Una  Saunders 
Professor  E.  D.  Soper,  D.D. 

Robert  E.  Speer,  D.D. 

President  J.  Ross  Stevenson,  D.D. 
Fermell  P.  Turner 

President  Addie  Grace  Wardle,  Ph.D. 
Reverend  Charles  R.  Watson,  D.D. 
Reverend  Stanley  White,  D.D. 
President  Wilbert  W.  White,  Ph.D. 


Division 

Section 


President  W.  Douglas  Mackenzie,  D.D.,  Chairman 

Feimell  P.  Turner,  Secretary 

Reverend  Wm.  I.  Chamberlain,  Ph.D.,  Treasurer 

Reverend  Frank  K.  Sanders,  Ph.D.,  Director 
25  Madison  Avenue,  New  York 


THE  PRESENTATION  OF 
CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEM. 


THE  REPORT  OF  A COMMITTEE  APPOINTED 
BY  THE  BOARD  OF  MISSIONARY  PREPARATION 


President  Charles  R.  Watson,  D.D.,  ChairmaH 
Professor  Duncan  B.  Macdonald,  D.D. 

The  Reverend  James  L.  Barton,  D.D. 

Miss  Helen  B.  Calder 
Professor  Daniel  J.  Fleming,  Ph.D. 

Professor  George  F.  Moore,  D.D. 

T.  H.  P.  Sailer,  Ph.D. 

Robert  E.  Speer,  D.D. 

President  J.  Ross  Stevenson,  D.D. 

Professor  Charles  C.  Torrey,  Ph.D. 

The  Reverend  Samuel  M.  Zwemer,  D.D. 


PRESENTED  AT  THE  SIXTH  ANNUAL  MEETING  IN  NEW  YORK, 

DECEMBER,  1916. 


Board  of  Missionary  Preparation 
25  Madison  Avenue.  New  York 


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PREFACE 


The  Board  of  Missionary  Preparation,  at  its  fourth  an- 
nual meeting,  held  in  New  York  City,  December  2,  1914, 
adopted  the  recommendation  of  its  Executive  Committee 
that  special  committees  be  appointed  “to  investigate  and 
report  upon  the  special  preparation  necessary  for  foreign 
missionary  candidates,  if  they  are  to  be  adequately  prepared 
to  present  the  Christian  message  to  adherents  of  different 
non-Christian  religions,”  and  authorized  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee to  make  the  appointments.  At  its  meeting  of  March 
23,  1915,  the  Committee  constituted  five  committees  on 
Animism,  Buddhism,  Confucianism,  Hinduism  and  Moham- 
medanism, Rev.  Charles  R.  Watson,  D.D.,  becoming  the 
chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Mohammedanism. 

The  following  report  is  therefore  one  of  a group  prepared 
by  the  Board  of  Missionary  Preparation  on  behalf  of  the 
Mission  Boards  of  North  America,  each  report  being  issued 
independently. 

These  reports  attempt  the  very  difficult  task  of  forrhulat- 
ing  for  the  benefit  of  missionary  candidates  and  of  junior 
missionaries  ^ the  religious  mind  of  the  people  influenced  by 
each  religion,  their  inherited  tendencies  and  natural  view- 
points, their  presuppositions  and  habitual  lines  of  thinking, 
the  data  of  whatever  nature  with  which  he  should  become 
familiar  who  hopes  to  carry  to  them  the  Christian  message 
and  to  get  results. 

It  was  not  until  the  fall  of  1915,  because  of  unforeseen 
delays,  that  the  Committee  on  Mohammedanism  was  able 
to  get  at  its  specific  task.  It  then  drew  up  an  outline  of  the 
proposed  report. 

On  November  15,  1915,  the  chairmen  of  the  five  com- 
mittees, with  the  secretary  and  the  director  of  the  Board, 

^ In  the  reports  issued  by  the  Board  of  Missionary  Preparation  this  con- 
venient term  is  used  to  designate  the  young  missionary  up  to  the  end  of  the 
first  missionary  furlough. 


3 


PREFACE 


held  a special  meeting  at  which  an  outline  of  each  report 
was  discussed  by  the  group,  with  excellent  results. 

At  the  Fifth  Annual  Meeting,  December  8,  1915,  the  re- 
port on  the  presentation  of  Christianity  to  Moslems  was 
presented  in  still  fuller  outline  to  the  whole  Board,  was  care- 
fully discussed,  and  then  remanded  to  the  committee  for 
further  development.  About  a year  later  the  report  was 
ready  for  printing  and  for  wide  circulation  as  a preliminary 
report  to  receive  careful  criticism.  It  was  then  sent  not 
only  to  each  member  of  the  Board  of  Missionary  Prepara- 
tion but  also  to  the  following  list  of  professional  students 
of  Islam,  secretaries  and  missionaries,  to  each  one  of  whom 
the  Board  is  deeply  indebted  for  the  patient  and  painstaking 
cooperation  so  freely  rendered  by  him: 


The  Reverend  Canon  John  Ali  Bakhsh,  Clarkabad,  Punjab,  India. 

Professor  Mardiros  H.  Ananikian,  S.T.M.,  Hartford,  Conn. 

Associate  Professor  of  History  and  Languages  of  Turkey  in  the  Kennedy  School  of 
Missions. 

The  Reverend  W.  B.  Anderson,  D.D.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Corresponding  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  United  Presbyterian  Church, 
N.  A. 

Professor  John  Clark  Archer,  M.A.,  B.D.,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Missions  in  the  Yale  School  of  Religion. 

The  Reverend  A.  E.  Armstrong,  M.A.,  Toronto,  Canada. 

Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada. 

The  Reverend  J.  H.  Arnup,  Toronto,  Canada. 

Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Church,  Canada. 

The  Reverend  A.  R.  Bartholomew,  D.D.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  United 
States. 

Professor  George  A.  Barton,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa. 

Professor  of  Biblical  Literature  and  Semitic  Languages  in  Bryn  Mawr  College. 

Professor  John  K.  Birgc,  Smyrna,  Turkey. 

-International  College. 

Mr.  Frank  L.  Brown,  New  York  City. 

General  Secretary  of  the  World’s  Sunday  School  Association. 

The  Reverend  J.  G.  Brown,  D.D.,  Toronto,  Canada. 

General  Secretary  of  the  Canadian  Baptist  Foreign  Mission  Board. 

The  Reverend  James  Cantine,  D.D.,  Basrah,  Persian  Gulf. 

The  Arabian  Mission  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America. 

The  Reverend  R.  E.  Chambers,  D.D.,  Canton,  China. 

Foreign  Mission  Board.  Southern  Baptist  Convention. 

The  Reverend  S.  H.  Chester,  D.D.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Secretary  Foreign  Correspondence  and  Editor  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  Foreign 
Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (South). 

Professor  Thomas  F.  Cummings,  Ph.D.,  New  York  City. 

The  Bible  Teachers’  Training  School. 

The  Reverend  Paul  de  Schweinitz,  D.D.,  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

Vice-President  and  Treasurer  of  the  Society  of  United  Brethren  for  Propagating  the 
Gospel  among  the  Heathen  (Moravian  Church). 

4 


PREFACE 


The  Reverend  Henry  O.  Dwight,  LL.D.,  New  York  City. 

Recording  Secretary  of  the  American  Bible  Society. 

The  Reverend  D.  Brewer  Eddy,  Boston,  Mass. 

Associate  Secretary  of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mi<3^  ns. 

G.  Sherwood  Eddy,  New  York  City. 

Associate  General  Secretary  of  the  International  Committee  of  Young  Men‘j  Christi  i 
Associations,  Foreign  Department. 

Mr.  Charles  H.  Fahs,  New  York  City. 

Curator  of  the  Missionary  Research  Library. 

The  Reverend  Janies  H.  Franklin,  D.D.,  BostOT,  Mass. 

Foreign  Secretary  of  the  American  Baptist  Foreign  Mission  Society. 

The  Reverend  Canon  W.  H.  T.  Gairdner,  B.A.,  Cairo,  Egypt. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society. 

Principal  Alfred  Gandier,  LL.D.,  Toronto,  Canada. 

Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada. 

The  Reverend  W.  Goldsack,  Royapettah,  Madras,  India. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society. 

The  Reverend  Canon  Malcolm  G.  Goldsmith,  Madras,  India. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society. 

The  Reverend  Canon  S.  Gould,  M.D.,  Toronto,  Canada: 

General  Secretary  of  the  Missionary  Society,  Church  of  England  in  Canada. 

Mr.  Ross  A.  Hadley,  Richmond,  Ind. 

•Assistant  Secretary  of  the  American  Friends  Board  of  Foreign  Missions. 

The  Reverend  George  F.  Herrick,  D.D.,  New  York  City. 

For  many  years  at  Constantinople,  engaged  in  literary  work  for  the  American  Board. 

Professor  Samuel  Ralph  Harlow,  Smyrna,  Turkey. 

International  College. 

Dr.  Walter  G.  Hiltner,  Medford  Hillside,  Mass. 

Harvard  Medical  School  of  China.  Shanghai,  China. 

Professor  Edward  W.  Hopkins,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Professor  of  Sanskrit  and  Comparative  Philology  in  Yale  University. 

The  Reverend  Franklin  E.  Hoskins,  D.D.,  Beirut,  Syria. 

Editor  fourth  edition  First  Font  Reference  Bible  in  Arabic. 

The  Reverend  S.  S.  Hough,  D.D.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

General  Secretary  of  the  Foreign  Missionary  Society,  United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

The  Reverend  Charles  E.  Hurlburt,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

General  Director  of  the  American  Council,  Africa  Inland  Mission. 

The  Reverend  E.  M.  Hursh,  Freetown,  Sierra  Leone,  West  Africa. 

Foreign  Missionary  Society,  United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

The  Reverend  George  Heber  Jones,  D.D.,  New  York  City. 

Editorial  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
formerly  a missionary  in  Korea. 

Professor  Duncan  B.  Macdonald,  M.A.,  D.D.,  Hartford,  Conn. 

Professor  oft  Semitic  Languages  and  Muhammadanism  in  the  Hartford  Theological 
Seminary. 

The  Reverend  A.  McLean,  D.D.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

President  Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society  (Disciples). 

Professor  J.  Allen  Miller,  Ashland,  Ohio. 

President  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  Brethren  Church. 

Professor  George  F.  Moore,  D.D.,  A.M.,  LL.D.,  LittD.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Frothingham  Professor  of  History  of  Religion  in  Harvard  University. 

The  Reverend  M.  T.  Morrill,  D.D.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

President  and  Secretary  of  the  Mission  Board  of  the  Christian  Church. 

The  Reverend  J.  Lovell  Murray,  New  York  City. 

Educational  Secretary  of  the  Student  Volunteer  Movement,  formerly  a missionary  in 
India. 

The  Reverend  C.  G.  Mylrea,  Lucknow,  India. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society. 

The  Reverend  W.  W.  Pinson,  D.D.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

General  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Missions  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South. 

5 


PREFACE 


Mrs.  Frederick  G.  (Mary  SchaufBer)  Platt,  B.L.,  New  Britain,  Conn. 

Instructor  in  Missionary  Practice  at  the  Kennedy  School  of  Missions,  Hartford,  Conn. 

The  Reverend  T.  B.  Ray,  D.D.,  Richmond,  Va. 

Secretary  of  the  Foreign  Mission  Board,  Southern  Baptist  Convention. 

The  Reverend  Walter  A.  Rice,  Kerman,  Persia. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society. 

The  Reverend  Burton  St.  John,  New  York  City. 

Statistician  of  the  Continuation  Committee  of  North  America,  formerly  a missionary 
in  China. 

The  Reverend  Canon  Edward  Sell,  D.D.,  Vepery,  Madras,  India. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society. 

The  Reverend  W.  A.  Shedd,  D.D.,  Urumiah,  Persia. 

Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  A. 

Professor  R.  Siraj-ud-din,  Lahore,  India. 

Forman  Christian  College,  Lahore. 

Elder  W.  A.  Spicer,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Secretary  of  the  General  Conference  of  Seventh-Day  Adventists. 

The  Reverend  Talib-ud-din,  Kaulakha,  Lahore,  India. 

Presbyterian  Mission. 

Dr.  S.  Earl  Taylor,  New  York  City. 

Corresponding  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church. 

Professor  Charles  C.  Torrey,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

.Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  in  Yale  University. 

The  Reverend  Stephen  van  R.  Trowbridge,  Cairo,  Egy’pt. 

General  Secretary  of  the  M’brld’s  Sunday  .School  Association  in  Moslem  Lands. 

The  Reverend  Howard  A.  Walter,  Lahore,  India. 

Secretary  for  Mohammedanism  of  the  Literary  Department  of  the  National  Council  of 
the  Young  Men’s  Christian  .Associations  of  India  and  Ceylon. 

The  Reverend  E.  M.  Wherry,  D.D.,  Ludhiana,  Punjab,  India. 

Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  A. 

President  George  E.  White,  D.D.,  Marsovan,  Turkey. 

Anatolia  College. 

The  Reverend  W.  A.  Wilson,  D.D.,  Indore,  India. 

Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada. 

The  Reverend  L.  B.  Wolf,  D.D.,  Baltimore,  Md. 

General  Secretary  and  Treasurer  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  General  Synod 
of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in  the  U.  S.  A. 

The  Reverend  Samuel  M.  Zwemer,  D.D.,  Cairo.  Egypt. 

Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America. 


The  result  of  the  wealth  of  friendly  criticism  thus  ob- 
tained is  seen  in  this  published  report.  The  enforced  ab- 
sence of  the  chairman,  Dr.  Watson,  in  the  Near  East  for  a 
long  series  of  months  made  it  necessary  for  other  members 
of  the  committee,  notably  Professor  Macdonald  of  Hart- 
ford, to  cooperate  with  the  Director  in  carrying  through  the 
work  of  revision,  but  the  outcome  of  their  labors  has  had 
the  benefit  of  Dr.  Watson’s  own  judgment.  The  committee 
is  under  great  obligation  also  to  Professor  Charles  C.  Tor- 
rey of  Yale  University,  to  Professor  Birge  of  Smyrna,  to 
Professor  Ananikian  of  Hartford  and  to  the  Reverend  How- 
ard A.  Walter  of  Lahore,  for  their  generous  assistance. 

6 


PREFACE 


The  report  as  published  may  fairly  be  termed  a consensus 
of  wide-ranging  expert  opinion.  No  pains  have  been  spared 
to  have  it  represent  the  present  judgment  of  the  missionary 
world,  and  useful,  not  alone  to  the  novice,  but  even,  in 
important  respects,  to  the  missionary  of  considerable  experi- 
ence; yet  we  do  not  regard  what  is  here  presented  as  a final 
statement  on  the  preparation  of  missionaries  for  work 
among  Moslems.  Criticisms  or  suggestions  will  always  be 
gratefully  received,  and  should  be  addressed  to  the  Director 
of  the  Board  of  Missionary  Preparation. 

To  determine  the  proper  standardization  of  the  spelling 
of  technical  terms  and  of  proper  names  in  a report  of  this 
sort,  which  aims  at  accuracy  and  yet  must  avoid  pedantry, 
is  not  a simple  matter.  The  editors  have  concluded  to  adopt 
in  general  the  authority  of  the  Standard  Dictionary  regard- 
ing good  English  usage,  with  a free  use  of  transliterations 
and  footnotes. 

Frank  K.  Sanders 

Director  of  the  Board  of  Missionary  Preparation. 

25  Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City, 

September,  1917. 


Note: — The  scientific  transliteration  used  has  been  kept  as  simple  as  possible. 
In  the  order  of  the  Arabic  alphabet  it  runs : 

’btthjhkhddhrzsshsrttz'ghfqklmnhwy. 

Vowels:  a i u a i u aw  or  au  ay  or  ai. 


7 


ANALYTICAL  OUTLINE 
Introductory 


I.  The  Rise  of  Islam 

(1)  The  Environment  of  Islam 

(2)  The  Character  and  Experience  of  Mohammed 

(3)  The  Formulating  of  the  New  Faith 


II.  The  Spread  and  Extent  of  Islam 

(1)  Its  Three  Missionary  Periods 

(2)  The  Explanation  of  the  Speedy  Extension  of  Islam 

(3)  Its  Numerical  Extension 

(4)  Its  Geographical  Extension 

(5)  The  Racial  Types  which  have  Accepted  Islam 

(6)  The  Linguistic  Situation 

(7)  The  Political  Situation 

III.  The  Social,  Political  and  Constitutional  Development  of 

Islam 

( 1 ) The  Individual 

(2)  The  Family 

(3)  The  Community 

(4)  Government 

(5)  The  Constitutional  Development  of  Islam 

IV.  The  Doctrinal  Content  of  Islam 

(1)  Allah 

(2)  Created  Beings 

(3)  The  Nature  of  Mankind 

(4)  Salvation 

(5)  The  Messengers  of  Salvation 

(6)  The  Sacred  Books 

(7)  Jesus  and  the  Mahdi 

(8)  The  Day  of  Judgment 


V. 


The  Religious  Practices  of  Islam 

(1)  Faith  and  its  Public  Confession 

(2)  Worship 

(3)  Fasting 

(4)  Tithing  and  Almsgiving 

(5)  Pilgrimage 

(6)  Jihad 


8 


ANALYTICAL  OUTLINE 


VI.  The  Legal  and  Theological  Development  of  Islam 

(1)  The  Development  of  Canon  La^w 

(2)  The  Theological  Development 

(a)  Free  Will  and  Predestination 

(b)  Allah  and  Flis  Qualities 

(c)  The  Doctrine  of  the  Koran 

(d)  Anthropomorphisms 

(e)  The  Vision  of  Allah 

VII.  Other  Religious  Organizations  and  Movements  in  Islam 

(1)  The  Shiites 

(2)  The  Mystical  Organization  and  Life 

(3)  Wahhabism 

(4)  Babism  and  Baha’ism 

(5)  The  Ahmadiya 

(6)  The  Neo-Mutazilites 

(7)  Other  Developments 

VIII.  The  Existing  Types  of  Moslems  as  a Result  of  These 

Influences 

(1)  As  Affected  by  Forces  from  without  Islam 

(2)  According  to  Their  Inner  Attitude 

(3)  According  to  Race  and  Environment 

IX.  What  Christianity  May  Add  to  Islam 

(1)  An  Emphasis  upon  the  Ethical  Character  of  God  and  upon 

the  Real  Nature  of  Sin 

(2)  The  Conception  of  a Mediator  between  God  and  Man 

(3)  The  Thought  of  Man  as  Made  in  God’s  Own  Image 

(4)  The  Brotherhood  of  All  Men  and  the  Fatherhood  of  God 

(5)  Freedom  of  Life  under  the  Gospel 

(6)  Freedom  of  Scientific  Investigation 

(7)  The  Right  of  All  to  Education 

(8)  The  True  Place  of  Womanhood  in  Life 

(9)  Christianity  and  Childhood 

( 10)  The  Significance  of  Suffering  in  Life 

(11)  The  Divine  Share  in  Human  Life 

(12)  The  Communion  of  Saints 

X.  What  Christianity  and  Islam  Have  in  Common 

(1)  The  Unity  of  God  and  of  the  World 

(2)  The  Reality  and  Personality  of  God 


9 


ANALYTICAL  OUTLINE 


(3)  The  Sinful  Nature  of  Man 

(4)  Each  Man  Standing  Personally  before  God 

(5)  That  the  Worship  of  God  is  a Comfort  and  Strength  to  Man 

(6)  The  Possibility  of  Immediate  Intercourse  between  God  and 

the  Individual 

(7)  That  God  has  revealed  His  Will  to  Man  through  Men 

(8)  The  Reality  of  a Judgment  and  of  a Life  to  Come 

XI.  The  Method  and  Attitude  of  the  Missionary  Approach  to 

Islam 

(1)  The  Necessity  of  Varying  Methods 

(2)  The  Primary  Necessity  to  Present  Christ 

(3)  The  Cosmic  Christ 

(4)  Redemption  from  Sin 

(5)  The  Simplicity  and  Clearness  of  the  Bible 

(6)  The  Devout  Life 

(7)  Sympathy  with  Mystical  Islam 

(8)  Answering  Theological  Questions 

(9)  The  Factor  of  Greatest  Importance 

(10)  The  Institutional  Approach  to  Islam 

XII.  The  Preparation  of  the  Missionary 

(1)  Along  Physical  and  Social  Lines 

(2)  Along  Intellectual  Lines 

(3)  Along  Spiritual  Lines 

(4)  In  General 

XIII.  Studies  of  Special  Value  to  One  who  is  to  be  a Mission- 

ary TO  Moslems 

XIV.  Bibliography  of  Islam 

XV.  Suggested  Reading  Courses  for  Those  Contemplating 
Missionary  Work  Among  Moslems 

XVI.  Selected  References  to  Paragraphs 

XVII.  Library  Hints  for  the  Missionary  Scholar 


10 


THE  PRESENTATION  OF  CHRISTIANITY 
TO  MOSLEMS 


Introductory 

This  report  deals  with  the  practical  missionary  problem 
of  presenting  Christianity  to  the  adherents  of  Islam/  and 
with  the  courses  of  preparation  which  will  help  the  young 
missionary  to  gain  efficiency  in  meeting  this  problem.  It 
seeks  to  lay  a broad  basis  for  this  efficiency  in  a preliminary 
study  of  the  rise  and  development  of  Mohammedanism,  the 
aim  of  which  is  to  show  its  real  values  as  understood  by  its 
votaries.  The  missionary  to  Moslems  ^ confronts  a system 
not  only  well  organized,  but  very  aggressive;  not  merely  a 
product  of  the  past,  but  still  in  process  of  development;  a 
religion  which  cannot  be  summarily  and  sweepingly  de- 
nounced, but  has  many  interesting  points  of  contact  to 
which  the  thoughtful  missionary  will  attach  the  broader  and 
truer  revelation  of  God  in  Christ.  The  missionary  who  sets 
himself  to  the  study  of  Islam  for  the  sake  of  ultimately 
winning  Moslems  to  Christianity  must  be  sympathetic,  in 
heart  as  well  as  in  mind,  with  his  task,  interested  in  it  as 
one  of  the  most  difficult  and  important  tasks  of  the  present 
day. 

The  Moslem  must  be  studied  as  he  actually  is ; not  merely 
from  the  standpoint  of  his  intellectual  difficulties  in  the 
acceptance  of  Christianity,  but  nationally,  socially  and  re- 
ligiously, as  a human  being  who  is  part  of  a great  working 
unity  to  which  he  is  very  loyal,  or  at  least  strongly  respon- 
sive, who  is  swayed  by  all  the  varieties  of  environment, 

1 The  word  Islam  literally  means  “giving  over”  [of  oneself  to  Allah],  It  is 
a convenient  and  proper  designation  for  the  religious  faith  introduced  by 
Mohammed. 

2 An  adherent  of  Islam  is  a Muslim,  “om  who  gives  over”  [himself  to  Allah], 
The  usual  English  spelling  is  retained  in  this  report. 


11 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


motive  and  habitual  impulse  that  modify  the  action  of  men 
everywhere. 

This  report  is  not  intended  to  be  a treatise,  but  rather  a 
helpful  and  suggestive  outline.  Whole  volumes  have  been 
written  on  phases  of  Islam  which  must  find  mention  here  in 
single  sentences.  For  the  full  details  of  the  history  of  Islam, 
of  its  theology  and  of  its  literature,  the  student  must  rely 
upon  standard  monographs  to  which  due  reference  will  be 
made;  this  report  can  only  call  attention  to  essential  data. 
With  all  its  brevity,  however,  its  aim  is  to  serve  as  a reliable 
guide  to  the  student  in  regard  to  each  particular  phase  of 
Islam’s  development,  and,  further,  to  discuss  adequately  the 
Moslem  mind  and  how  to  guide  that  mind  along  lines  of 
Christian  experience.  It  therefore  essays  a highly  technical 
task,  involving  not  merely  a reference  to  the  historical  ori- 
gins of  Islam  and  of  the  Moslem  social  fabric  and  govern- 
ment, but  some  insight  into  the  legal,  theological  and  relig- 
ious development  of  Islam,  and  some  acquaintance  with  the 
resultant  sects,  parties  and  schools,  both  in  history  and  at 
the  present  day.  The  technical  terminology  which  even  the 
ordinary  Moslems  use  is  indicated,  because  every  missionary 
to  Moslems  should  be  familiar  with  it.  The  efficient  mis- 
sionary needs  to  comprehend  the  intimate  Moslem  point  of 
view  clearly  in  order  to  make  any  real  working  connection 
between  Moslems  and  Christianity. 

The  report  has  been  written  primarily  for  the  missionary 
candidate  and  for  the  young  missionary  out  on  the  field  for 
the  first  time.  Yet,  obviously,  the  long  process  of  educa- 
tion which  develops  an  experienced  and  efficient  missionary 
to  Moslem  peoples  must  continue  throughout  life.  Missions 
have  their  own  ways  of  contributing  to  this  educational 
process  which  must  be  furthered  by  contact  and  experience 
no  less  than  through  careful  courses  of  study.  Past  experi- 
ence is  beginning  to  show  that  a wise  basis  may  be  laid 
during  the  preparatory  years  for  the  acquisition  of  rich 

12 


THE  RISE  OF  ISLAM 


experience,  and  that  the  first  missionary  furlough  at  home 
is  capable  of  furnishing  invaluable  graduate  training  for 
the  missionary  to  Moslems.  He  then  realizes  his  short- 
comings and  eagerly  sets  himself  to  overcome  them.  The 
report  has  each  of  these  three  phases  of  experience  in  mind. 

I.  The  Rise  of  Islam 

An  acquaintance  \vith  the  Moslem  world  as  it  has  devel- 
oped during  thirteen  centuries  into  the  organized  unity  of 
today,  and  which  in  its  turn  seems  again  to  be  break- 
ing into  rationalistic  multiplicity,  is  quite  essential  to  the 
Christian  missionary.  This  historic  approach  is  invaluable 
by  its  explanation  of  many  facts  which  would  otherwise 
seem  puzzling  or  actually  unreasonable.  Many  factors  en- 
tered into  the  beginning  of  Mohammedanism,  some  of  them 
historical,  some  racial,  still  others  personal.  It  is  scarcely 
accurate  to  say  that  Islam  is  a mere  composite  of  these  fac- 
tors, for  it  has  had  a permanence  and  persistency  for  which 
only  a real  religious  idealism  can  account.  The  personality 
of  its  founder  is  also  deeply  impressed  upon  Islam.  What- 
ever may  be  our  judgment  on  the  character  and  influence 
of  Mohammed,^  we  will  not  question  that  he  was  a very 
great  man.  Throughout  its  theological  development  Islam 
has  managed  to  absorb  many  strangely  diverse  elements, 
elements  which  might  be  regarded  as  foreign  to  its  essential 
nature,  and  yet  it  has  remained  Islam.  Now  it  is  trying  to 
absorb  practically  the  whole  Western  civilization  and  its 
ideas,  and  still  to  remain  Islam.  Any  one  whose  purpose  is 
to  deal  with  Moslems  needs,  therefore,  a very  clear  grasp 
of  the  historical  growth  of  Islam. 

(1)  The  Environment  of  Islam. — Islam  had  its  birth- 
place in  Arabia,  a fact  as  important  for  a proper  under- 

1 The  name  in  Arabic  is  pronounced  Mukainmad.  The  customary  English 
spelling  is  followed  in  this  report. 


13 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


Standing  of  its  inner  spirit  and  of  its  historical  development 
as  is  the  corresponding  knowledge  of  Palestine  and  its  his- 
tory to  a sane  interpretation  of  the  origin  and  growth  of 
the  Christian  religion.  The  student  of  Islam  should  there- 
fore become  acquainted  with  Arabia,  its  peoples  and  their 
characteristics.^  The  habitable  portions  of  the  Arabian 
desert  in  the  sixth  century  after  Christ  were  occupied  by 
great  tribes  characterized  by  independence  of  spirit,  democ- 
racy of  organization  under  patriarchal  forms  and  marked 
individualism,  quickly  passing  into  violence,  revengefulness, 
and  intolerance  of  discipline,  and  leading  a type  of  life 
which  gave  a large  opportunity  for  both  austerity  and 
fanaticism.  They  were  also  passing  through  a great  poet- 
ical period.  With  regard  to  religion,  the  Arab  was,  and  is, 
somewhat  hard-headed  and  cynical,  but  it  is  undoubted 
that  the  desert  assists  a man  of  religious  spirit  in  develop- 
ing a conception  of  God  which  is  lofty  and  commanding. 
The  last  century  of  critical  study  by  competent  Western 
scholars  has  established  the  fact  that  Islam,  as  conceived 
by  its  great  prophet,  was  a constructive  composite  which 
gave  much  recognition  to  the  customary  life  of  his  people, 
while  borrowing  freely  from  Jewish  and  Christian  sources 
and  adding  a stamp  which  was  undeniably  his  own. 

(2)  The  Character  and  Experience  of  Mohammed. — It  is 
supremely  important  that  the  missionary  to  Moslems  should 
be  quite  familiar  with  the  life,  character  and  spiritual  expe- 
riences of  the  prophet  of  Arabia.  Three  phases  of  his  life 
call  particularly  for  study:  his  personality,  his  environ- 
ment, and  his  career.  Born  about  570  A.D.,  a posthumous 
child,  he  early  lost  his  mother  also,  and  was  brought  up  by 
his  uncle.  His  early  life  was  spent  in  an  environment  which 
brought  him  into  contact  with  the  vicissitudes  of  the  life  of 
the  poor  in  a mercantile  and  purse-proud  society.  This 

^ Noldeke  has  contributed  a fine  article  on  the  “Ancient  Arabs”  to  the  “En- 
cyclopedia of  Religion  and  Ethics,”  vol.  i,  659.  See,  too,  the  article  “Arabia”  in 
the  “Encyclopedia  of  Islam.” 


14 


THE  RISE  OF  ISLAM 

personal  experience  aroused  in  him  a deep  sympathy  for  the 
oppressed.  He  gained  a wider  outlook  upon  the  world  by 
accompanying  caravans  to  various  parts  of  Arabia  and  of 
Syria.  The  dates  in  his  life  are  all  very  uncertain,  except 
those  of  his  death  and  of  the  migration  to  Medina,  but  it  is 
substantially  assured  that  at  about  the  age  of  twenty-five  he 
married  a wealthy  woman  of  strong  personality  but  dubious 
social  standing,  and  that  they  lived  together  in  mutual  es- 
teem and  respect.  It  is  also  fairly  certain  that,  at  the  age 
of  forty,  he  came  under  certain  arousing  spiritual  influences 
which  led  him  to  questionings  about  religion,  and  which 
especially  raised  in  him  the  fear  of  an  avenging  God.  How 
to  escape  that  future  vengeance  was  his  problem,  and  it 
weighed  upon  him  to  such  an  extent  that  his  personality 
evidently  became  unsettled.  He  had  always,  in  all  probabil- 
ity, been  psychically  pathological,  and  now  he  began  to  hear 
voices  and  see  visions.  For  a long  time  he  was  in  doubt 
regarding  their  source,  whether  from  evil  spirits  or  from 
God.  How  he  was  led  to  the  fixed  conclusion  that  they 
came  from  God  we  do  not  know.  How,  again,  he  was  led 
to  connect  himself  with  the  whole  scheme  of  Old  Testament 
prophecy  we  also  do  not  know,  but  we  know  it  was  a fact. 

The  influences  bearing  upon  Mohammed  in  one  degree 
and  another  were  (1)  the  Judaism  and  Christianity  of  the 
day  and  their  Scriptures,  especially  the  stories  of  the 
prophets  and  patriarchs;  (2)  certain  friends  of  his  who 
were  seeking  a true  religion  just  as  he  was  (the  so-called 
hantfs);  and  (3)  his  position  as  a member  of  the  tribe  of 
Koreish  ^ with  its  inherited  ritual,  part  of  which  he  dis- 
avowed, another  part  of  which  he  incorporated  into  Islam 
for  reasons  which  seem  to  have  been  those  of  policy.  There 
are  distinct  signs  also  of  the  direct  influence  on  him  of  a 
heretical  Christian  teacher.  After  he  assumed  the  role  of 
a prophet  there  were  two  outstanding  elements  in  his  teach- 

* Quraish  in  Arabic. 

15 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


ing,  a theological  and  a social.  By  way  of  theology,  he 
declared  that  the  only  God  was  Allah,  a supreme  God  al- 
ready so-called  and  recognized  by  the  Meccans,  who  had 
added,  however,  a pantheon  of  subordinate  tribal  and  local 
gods  who  were  the  real  objects  of  their  worship;  that  Allah 
would  have  a great  future  day  of  judgment,  and  that  men 
must  flee  from  that  day  by  surrendering  themselves  entirely 
to  Allah — that  is,  by  becoming  Moslems.  As  a social  mes- 
sage he,  like  Amos,  reiterated  the  rights  of  the  poor  as  over 
against  the  rich,  and  laid  upon  the  rich  the  care  of  the  poor. 
And  affecting  all  these  various  influences  which  have  been 
mentioned  must  be  taken  into  account  an  imaginative  power, 
a command  of  language,  a physical  presence  and  a charm  of 
character  which  gave  Mohammed  a unique  personality,  and 
attracted  to  him  men  of  the  most  diversified  qualities,  and 
which  help  to  explain  how  a great  world  religion  swung 
upon  the  hinges  of  his  life.  On  another  side  he  was  de- 
ficient in  sense  of  form  beyond  even  the  ordinary  Semite; 
he  was  a preacher  and  not  a theologian;  he  could  not  retell 
straightly  a story  which  he  had  heard;  and  though  he  pos- 
sessed a poet’s  imagination  and  feeling  for  words,  he  could 
not  produce  poetry  because  of  his  lack  in  sense  of  form. 

His  career  divides  naturally  into  two  periods  at  the  year 
622  A.D.,  the  date  of  his  migration  (hijra)  from  Mecca  to 
Medina.  Before  622  the  details  of  the  life  of  Mohammed 
are  very  uncertain;  after  that  date  the  events  narrated  have 
a better  historical  basis,  yet  only  the  most  essential  data  can 
be  held  to  be  certain.  In  general,  we  know  the  facts  of 
Mohammed’s  mind  with  far  greater  assurance  than  those  of 
his  life — his  ideas  better  than  his  deeds.  It  is,  however, 
of  importance  that  the  missionary  to  Moslems  should  know 
what  the  traditional  view  of  the  life  of  Mohammed  is  and 
has  been,  but  he  must  always  remember  that  that  traditional, 
life,  as  given  in  such  biographies  as  that  by  Muir,  or  as 
characterized  by  Carlyle  in  “Heroes  and  Hero  Worship,”  is 


16 


THE  RISE  OF  ISLAM 


now  regarded  as  open  to  grave  doubt  and  is  being  subjected 
to  searching  historical  criticism.  What  is  important  for 
the  missionary  is  that  Moslems  believe  it,  not  that  it  is  true. 
Thus  it  is  of  great  importance  that  the  missionary  should 
realize  that  the  whole  life  of  Mohammed  for  the  Moslem  is 
wrapped  in  miracle  from  his  birth  to  his  death.  Nor  does 
the  Moslem  seem  to  find  difficulty  in  squaring  this  belief 
with  the  fact  that  the  Koran  expressly  disclaims  for  Mo- 
hammed any  power  of  working  miracles.  The  ideas  of 
Mohammed,  however,  which  we  gain  from  the  Koran  ^ are 
relatively  reliable. 

Whoever  studies  the  two  divisions  of  the  life  of  the 
prophet  can  hardly  fail  to  realize  that  he  underwent  a moral 
I deterioration  in  the  second  period.  After  the  Hegira  Mo- 
hammed became  the  absolute  ruler  of  his  party  in  Medina, 
and  under  these  different  conditions  his  character  rapidly 
I altered.  Through  the  doctrine  of  the  imitation  of  Moham- 
' med  and  through  the  influence  of  the  Jihad  (the  laws 
governing  the  relation  of  Moslems  and  non-Moslems),  a 
similar  change  is  almost  uniformly  to  be  recognized  in  the 
lives  of  Moslem  religious  leaders,  and  especially  in  the  lives 
of  outstanding  Mahdis.  A holy  person  in  Moslem  history 
; begins  as  a saint-reformer,  but  norm.ally  he  develops  into 
, the  founder  of  a new  militant  state,  and  his  own  character 
suffers  under  the  change.  From  being  a saintly  reformer 
he  passes  into  a conqueror  by  force  of  arms.  In  the  case  of 
I Mohammed,  this  change  of  character  left  its  mark  even  on 
the  style  of  the  Koran.  Nearly  all  the  chapters  {sura)  be- 
longing to  this  later  period  seem  to  lack  sincerity;  their 
subject-matter  becomes  more  and  more  mundane  and  pro- 
• saic;  their  fire,  terseness  and  rhythmic  beauty  fade  away 
I into  prolixity,  obscurity  and  wearisome  repetitions.^ 

] 1 In  the  Arabic  the  name  of  the  Mohammedan  Scriptures  is  Qur’an  which 

probably  meant  originally  “a  piece  to  be  recited.”  The  familiar  English  spelling 
^ IS  followed  in  this  report. 

I 2 Yhis  ^iii  bg  abundantly  clear  to  any  one  who  reads  the  Koran  in  some 
approximately  chronological  order  as  in  Rodwell’s  translation  (No.  17). 

17 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


(3)  The  Formulating  of  the  New  Faith. — While  Islam 
has  undergone  important  developments  during  the  course 
of  its  all  but  world-wide  spread,  nevertheless  the  character 
and  form  it  assumed  during  the  lifetime  of  its  founder  were 
determinative  of  its  type  for  all  time.  This  was  because  it 
early  became,  in  Islam,  a positive  religious  duty  to  imitate 
the  conduct  of  the  prophet  at  all  points.  His  usage  (sunna) 
became  a norm  for  all  later  Moslems.  It  is  essential,  there- 
fore, for  a clear  picture  of  the  development  of  Islam  to  see 
it  as  it  lay  in  the  mind  of  its  founder.  There  religion  and 
statecraft  were  always  intertwined.  The  recognition  of 
Mohammed  as  a religious  leader  involved  the  acceptance  of 
him  as  the  head  of  the  state.  Moreover,  his  belief  in  Allah 
as  the  one  God  involved  the  destruction  of  the  Meccan  pan- 
theon. At  first  sight,  therefore,  the  triumph  of  Mohammed 
seemed  to  mean  the  overthrow  of  the  aristocratic  system  of 
the  tribe  of  Koreish  at  Mecca  and  the  loss  of  its  privileged 
and  vested  interests,  but  that  loss  was  avoided  by  the  ac- 
ceptance in  Islam  of  the  whole  ceremonial  of  the  pilgrim- 
age ^ of  which  the  Koreish  were  hereditary  guardians.  The 
basis  for  these  developments,  religious  and  political,  lay  in 
the  revelations  which  came  to  Mohammed  in  fragments. 
These  contained  his  theology  and  his  system  of  law;  parts 
were  for  edification,  and  parts  for  use  in  religious  ritual; 
there  were  also  political  statements  of  his  views  and  desires. 
Moslems  themselves  divide  the  content  of  the  Koran  into 
three : commands,  prohibitions,  and  narratives.  Before 
Mohammed  the  Arabs  had  had  no  Scriptures;  the  Jews  and 
Christians  did  have  such,  and  were  respected  in  conse- 
quence; and  it  greatly  added  to  the  definiteness  and  stand- 
ing of  the  new  faith  that  the  revelations  made  by  Moham- 
med should  have  claimed  the  value  of  sacred  Scripture. 
Further,  the  enlarging  community  of  the  faithful  needed  a 

1 In  Arabic  hajj,  an  ancient  annual  visit  to  the  venerated  Ka'ba  at  Mecca  by 
pilgrims  from  all  over  Arabia. 


18 


SPREAD  AND  EXTENT  OF  ISLAM 


simple  code  of  legislation.  This  Mohammed  developed, 
partly  by  revelation,  but  largely  from  the  customary  law  of 
the  Arabs,  and  thus  fitted  the  new  religion  very  precisely 
to  the  needs  of  the  community  of  which  he  was  the  head. 

I 

i 

II.  The  Spread  and  Extent  of  Islam 

The  rapid  expansion  of  Moslem  authority  constitutes  one 
of  the  wonders  of  history.  At  the  death  of  Mohammed, 
A.D.  632,  his  influence  was  still  confined  to  Arabia,  but 
during  the  short  reign  of  the  first  caliph,^  Abu-Bakr,  the 
' course  of  conquest  had  begun.  Within  forty  years  the 
countries  on  the  east  as  far  as  the  Indus  had  submitted  to 
Moslem  rule.  Within  a century  the  caliphate  had  pushed 
its  conquests  on  the  west  as  far  as  Spain  and  southern 
France.  Within  the  longer  period  it  had  fought  its  way 
northward  to  the  Caspian  and,  possibly,  far  on  the  road  to 
China.  Thus,  after  about  a century,  “the  empire  of  the 
Khalifas  extended  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Indus  and  from 
the  Caspian  to  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile.”  ^ These  con- 
quests were  not  all  permanent,  but  they  gave  Islam  a recog- 
nized place  in  the  world.  It  is  very  much  worth  the  while 
of  the  young  missionary  to  know  the  data  of  Moslem  as- 
cendancy and  occupation  which  relate  to  the  district  in 
which  he  is  located. 

(1)  Its  Three  Missionary  Periods. — The  student  of  the 
history  of  Islam  will  need  to  distinguish  three  periods  of 
religious  extension.  Islam  has  not  proceeded  uniformly  and 
steadily,  but,  like  Christendom,  it  has  had  an  apostolic,  a 
I medieval,  and  a modern  era  of  missionary  expansion.^ 

j 1 In  Arabic  Khalifa.  The  customary  English  word,  Caliph,  is  used  in  this 

I report. 

ii  2 Lane-Poole,  “The  Mohammedan  Dynasties,”  p.  6,  a book  which  cannot  be 
I too  warmly  recommended  as  a very  full,  very  concise,  and  mainly  tabulated 
I survey  of  Moslem  history. 

® Consult  Arnold’s  article  “Mohammedan  Missions,”  in  Encyclopedia  of 
j Religion  and  Ethics,  vol.  viii. 


19 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


The  first  period  covered  approximately  the  first  century 
after  the  death  of  Mohammed.  In  A.D.  732,  the  victory  of 
Charles  the  Hammer,  the  grandfather  of  Charlemagne, 
over  the  Saracens  at  Poitiers,  set  a barrier  to  the  western 
sweep  of  Islam  which  it  never  overpassed.  This  first  cen- 
tury was  a period  in  which  the  lust  of  conquest  was 
strengthened  by  the  irresistible  power  of  religious  enthu- 
siasm. With  fire  and  sword  the  Moslem  hosts  established 
Islam  in  the  available  world  of  their  day,  and  by  more 
peaceful  means  gave  it  an  introduction  to  the  Far  East. 
For  the  next  few  centuries,  under  the  often  universal  head- 
ship of  the  Abbasid  dynasty  ruling  from  Bagdad,  which 
was  founded  in  762  by  al-Man.sur,  the  second  of  the  line, 
Islam  was  content  to  dominate  this  vast  Asiatic  empire. 
It  also  dominated  North  Africa  and  Spain  under  the  Umay- 
yad  dynasty  ruling  at  Cordova,  founded  in  755  by  Abdur 
Rahman. 

The  second  chapter  of  the  attempted  conquest  of  the 
world  by  Islam  began  with  the  rise  of  the  Seljuks  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  vast  realm,  once 
united  under  one  Mohammedan  ruler,  had  become  a col- 
lection of  scattered  kingdoms.  The  Seljuks  of  Turkestan, 
when  converted  to  Islam,  swarmed  over  western  Asia, 
exterminating  each  little  dynasty,  and  again  created  a real 
Mohammedan  empire  ranging  from  the  western  border 
of  Afghanistan  to  the  Mediterranean.  These  conquests 
bred  a race  of  fanatical  Moslem  warriors  to  whose  prowess 
particularly  was  due  the  repeated  failure  of  the  crusaders. 
They  controlled  as  far  as  the  Bosphorus.  But  their  great 
generals  gradually  divided  the  empire  again  into  a group 
of  dynasties  which  were  destined  to  give  way,  in  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries,  to  the  Ottoman  empire  in 
western  Asia  and  the  Mongol  empire  in  the  East. 

The  Mongols  belonged  to  a great  nomadic  confederacy 
which  originally  ranged  the  country  north  of  the  desert  of 


20 


SPREAD  AND  EXTENT  OF  ISLAM 


Gobi,  owing  allegiance  to  the  Turks  and  to  the  Chinese, 
Their  great  leader,  Genghis  (Chingiz)  Khan,  was  a sort 
of  second  Alexander  the  Great.  Ascending  the  throne  at 
an  early  age,  he  established  his  authority  over  the  confed- 
eracy after  thirty  years  of  struggle,  and  in  1206  began  a 
remarkable  career  of  conquest.  He  was  not  a Mohammedan, 
but  his  successors,  who  had  professed  Islam,  continued  to 
conquer  until  they  had  brought  China,  eastern  Turkestan, 
Afghanistan,  and  southern  Russia  under  their  sway.  At 
about  the  same  time  India,  of  which  only  a corner  had  been 
held  by  Mohammedans,  came  as  a whole  under  Mohammedan 
rule,  and  Islam  became  an  established  religious  faith  side  by 
side  with  Hinduism.^ 

The  Ottoman  Turks  were  first  driven  out  of  their  home 
in  Central  Asia  by  the  invasion  of  Genghis  Khan.  For  a 
long  time  they  were  settled  in  Asia  Minor,  gradually  in- 
creasing their  dominions  at  the  expense  both  of  the  Seljuk 
Turks  and  of  the  Greek  cities,  until  finally,  in  1358,  they 
crossed  the  Hellespont  and  began  the  conquest  of  the  Euro- 
pean provinces  of  the  Byzantine  empire.  After  two  cen- 
turies the  Turkish  rule  was  acknowledged  from  the  Danube 
to  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  and  from  the  Euphrates  almost 
to  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  The  control  of  the  Balkans  and 
of  Constantinople  was,  until  recently,  the  evidence  of  this 
expansion  of  influence,  however  sharply  checked  to  the 
north  and  west. 

The  third  period  of  missionary  expansion  is  compara- 
tively modern.  There  was  a great  revival  of  Islam  with  an 
attempt  at  reconstruction  in  the  Wahhabi  ^ movement  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  This  revival  has  found  further 
expression  in  the  dervish  fraternities  of  Africa,  in  the 
“saints”  who  accompany  the  trading  caravans,  and  in  the 
pilgrims  who  return  home  after  a stay  at  IMecca,  the  holy 

1 Lane-Poole ; “Mohammedan  Dynasties,”  pp.  284,  286. 

2 In  Arabic  Wahhabi,  meaning  an  adherent  of  the  reforming  sect  founded 
in  the  eighteenth  century  by  Abd-el-Wahhab.  See  p.  64. 

21 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


city.  Islam  has  been  taken  by  them  not  only  throughout 
northern  Africa  and  into  India,  but  also  “into  Russia,  into 
the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  even  among  the  Finns  of  the 
Volga.”  ' 

(2)  The  Explanation  of  the  Speedy  Extension  of  Islam. 
— It  is  evident  from  the  above  that,  as  in  all  history,  more 
than  one  set  of  influences  affected  this  career  of  expansion. 
On  the  one  hand,  the  adherents  of  Islam  undoubtedly  re- 
garded themselves  as  the  hosts  of  Allah,  and  the  rush  which 
carried  all  before  them  was  truly  inspired  by  that  con- 
sciousness. There  is  no  doubt  that  Islam  was  propagated, 
and  by  its  essential  nature  must  be  propagated,  by  the 
sword.  But  this  does  not  explain  how  the  sword  wielded 
by  comparatively  small  armies  conquered  in  so  short  a time 
so  great  a territory.  There  is  a sociological  explanation 
also.  The  time  had  come  in  Arabia,  by  reason  of  the  over- 
pressure of  population,  for  a general  movement  outward 
which  was  aided  by  the  weakness  of  the  surrounding 
powers  and  made  irresistible  by  the  spoils  of  conquest. 
Another  important  reason  is  to  be  found  in  the  fine  leader- 
ship of  those  who  headed  the  early  armies  and  who  founded 
the  later  dynasties.  But  among  the  greatest  reasons  of  all 
for  the  rapid  growth  of  Islam  since  its  inception  may  well 
have  been  its  simplicity,  its  idealism,  and  its  spirit  of  de- 
mocracy. It  created  a great  brotherhood.  This  in  turn 
led  to  great  mass  movements.  Islam  overcame  the  Chris- 
tianity and  the  Judaism  of  its  day  because  neither  had  the 
spiritual  power  which  could  entitle  it  to  world  leadership. 
The  Christianity  of  the  seventh  century  was,  in  the  main, 
an  unaggressive,  formal  Christianity,  a caricature  of  the 
faith  which  Jesus  founded.  It  abounded  in  intermediaries 
between  the  soul  and  God,  had  lost  its  early  simplicity,  and 
was  lacking  in  ethical  strength.  Ecclesiastical  oppression 
and  consequent  disaffection  played  a large  part  in  its  life. 

1 Zwemer,  “Islam,”  p.  58. 


22 


SPREAD  AND  EXTENT  OF  ISLAM 


This  may  well  explain  the  rapid  collapse  of  Byzantium  in 
Syria,  Egypt,  and  North  Africa,  while  it  succeeded  in  hold- 
ing the  line  of  the  Taurus  for  centuries.  The  fall  of  Spain 
was  due  to  sociological  causes.  Present-day  Islam  must  be 
estimated  from  various  points  of  view. 

(3)  Its  Numerical  Extension. — Very  careful  studies  of 
the  numerical  strength  of  Mohammedanism  throughout  the 
world  were  made  in  connection  with  the  Conference  of 
1911,  at  Lucknow.  These  figures,  as  revised  by  Professor 
Westermann  and  Dr.  Zwemer,  in  1914,  gave  a total  of 
201,000,000  of  Moslems  in  the  world.  This  includes  166,000 
in  North  and  South  America,  2,374,000  in  Europe,  156,- 
000,000  in  Asia,  and  42,000,000  in  Africa.  Only  six  and 
a half  percent,  of  the  Moslems  of  the  world  were,  in  1914, 
a part  of  the  Ottoman  empire.^ 

(4)  Its  Geographical  Extension. — The  reasons  for  the 
limits  of  the  borders  of  Islam  at  the  present  day  can  be 
stated  from  different  points  of  view.  It  has  been  said  on 
high  authority  that  Islam  is  in  the  main  a religion  of  the 
heat  belt,^  that  is,  of  the  tropics  and  the  sub-tropics.  There 
is  undoubtedly  a certain  amount  of  truth  in  this  position,  but 
it  cannot  be  laid  down  as  the  governing  factor.  Questions 
of  race  undoubtedly  enter  into  the  situation,  both  from  the 
point  of  view  of  blood  kinship  and  of  environment.  It  may 
be  said  broadly  also,  that  after  the  first  century  of  con- 
quest no  really  civilized  race  has  given  itself  as  a whole  to 
Islam.  In  quite  modern  times  the  traffic  in  coolies  has 
tended  to  spread  Islam  in  quarters  which  it  would  not 
otherwise  have  reached — in  the  West  Indies,  for  example, 
and  in  South  Africa.  The  consequence  is,  that  while  there 
are  large  portions  of  the  earth’s  surface  which  are  sol- 
idly Moslem,  Islam  is  also  to  be  found  sporadic  in  other 

1 The  Moslem  World,  April,  1914,  pp.  145-156.  Other  excellent  authorities 
regard  the  estimate  of  201,000,000  as  too  low  by  about  30,000,000. 

2 Margoliouth,  “Mohammedanism.”  See,  however.  Professor  E.  Huntington, 
“Civilization  and  Climate,”  p.  333,  Yale  University  Press. 


23 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


quarters.  In  this  the  results  of  the  artificially  stimulated 
Moslem  missions  in  Europe  need  not  be  reckoned.  It  is 
interesting,  however,  in  this  connection  to  notice  that  it  is 
the  quite  heretical  Moslem  sects,  which  no  orthodox  Mos- 
lem would  regard  as  being  really  Moslem  at  all,  which  have 
the  greatest  success.  Examples  of  these  are  the  Bahais  ^ 
and  the  Ahmadiyas.  All  northern  Africa,  penetrating  also 
far  into  the  center,  and  coolies  in  South  Africa,  are  Mos- 
lems. Western  Asia  is  Moslem,  with  the  exception  of  the 
scattered  and  scanty  Armenian,  Nestorian,  Christian  Syrian 
and  Greek  populations.  At  least  a quarter  of  the  popula- 
tion of  India  and  the  people  of  Afghanistan,  with  other 
tribes  on  the  northwest  frontier  and  a large  proportion  of 
Central  Asia,  are  also  Moslem.  Further  east,  in  the  Dutch 
East  Indies  and  Malaysia,  there  is  roughly  a Moslem  popu- 
lation of  about  thirty  millions.  The  Moslem  population 
of  China  has  been  estimated  in  the  most  varying  fashion.^ 
That  in  the  northwest  and  southwest  sections  of  the  republic 
it  is  very  considerable  seems  certain.  In  Japan  there  is  only 
the  same  kind  of  Moslem  propaganda  as  in  England.  It  is 
significant  for  the  geographical  hold  of  Islam  that  when 
European  territory  has  been  reconquered  by  Christendom, 
the  Moslem  population  has  normally  retired  into  solidly 
Moslem  territory.  Exceptions  to  this  are  Bosnia  and  Her- 
zegovina, where  there  is  still  a considerable  Moslem  ele- 
ment. The  Albanians  have  the  distinction  of  being  the 
only  European  race  which  almost  solidly  embraced  Islam, 
but  in  Albania  today  probably  not  over  two-thirds  of  the 
population  are  Moslems,  a large  proportion  of  them  being 
only  nominally  so. 

(5)  The  Racial  Types  Which  Have  Accepted  Islam. — 
The  rapid  spread  of  Islam  in  animistic  Malaysia  and  Cen- 
tral Africa  and  in  shahmanistic  Central  Asia  cannot  but  be 

1 Baha’i  and  Ahmadiya  are  sects  described  later.  See  pp.  65,  67. 

2 According  to  Broomhall  it  numbered  in  1911  between  five  and  ten  millions. 
Moslem  World,  vol.  i,  32  pp. 


24 


SPREAD  AND  EXTENT  OF  ISLAM 


significant.  It  is  possible,  too,  that  the  statement  above  with 
regard  to  the  Albanian  race  might  be  historically  contested, 
for  it  seems  certain  that  the  races  of  Spain  at  the  conquest 
must  have  accepted  Islam  very  largely.  Immigration  from 
North  Africa  was  not  great.  On  the  other  hand,  while  the 
reconquest  was  slow,  it  was  very  complete,  and  was  evi- 
dently a triumph  of  the  real  Spanish  race.  In  southern 
Italy  and  Sicily  there  was  a similar  situation  both  of  con- 
quest and  of  reconquest.  The  Greek  population,  on  the 
other  hand,  does  not  seem  to  have  accepted  Islam  to  any 
large  extent.  It  is  also  suggestive  for  the  influence  re- 
spectively of  race  and  environment  that  the  Hungarians 
became  Christian  and  the  Ottoman  Turks  Moslem.  On  the 
other  hand,  even  yet  there  is  a certain  feeling  of  race  kin- 
ship between  the  two.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  prog- 
ress of  Islam  along  the  North  African  coast  was  aided  by 
kinship  of  Semitic  blood,  and  certainly  the  complete  dis- 
appearance of  the  Christian  Church  of  North  Africa  still 
calls  for  explanation  beyond  the  breaking  up  of  the  Roman 
power  by  the  Gothic  invasions.  Against  the  influence  of 
racial  types  we  have  always  to  remember  that  solidarity  of 
the  Moslem  brotherhood  which  has  already  been  discussed. 
This  means  some  unity  in  thinking  and  also  a religious 
kinship  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Malaysian  seas  and  from 
South  Africa  to  Siberia. 

(6)  The  Linguistic  Situation. — The  four  principal  lan- 
guages of  Islam  are  Arabic,  Persian,  Ottoman  Turkish  and 
Urdu.  The  primary  fact  is  that  Arabic  is  the  language  of 
religion,  of  law  and  of  learning  in  the  broadest  sense  for 
the  whole  Moslem  world.  For  the  Arabic  speaking  part 
of  that  world  it  is  also  the  language  of  literature,  and  for 
all  of  that  world  of  classical  literature.  It  has  thus  the 
role  in  Islam  of  both  Latin  and  Greek  in  Christendom. 
Non-Arabic  speaking  Moslem  countries  have  their  own 
vernaculars,  and  these  often,  as  in  Turkey  and  Persia,  have 


2? 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


highly  developed  literatures  of  their  own;  but  even  these 
literatures  have  been  very  largely  affected  by  Arabic,  both 
as  language  and  as  a form  of  literary  expression,  and  have 
also  affected  one  another.  Thus  Arabic  has  affected  Per- 
sian and  Persian  and  Arabic  have  still  more  affected  Turk- 
ish. Of  Turkish,  it  may  be  said,  for  example,  that  while 
the  basal  vocabulary  and  the  machinery  of  grammar  are 
its  own,  yet  Arabic  words  and  phrases  of  a religious  and 
scientific  character  have  so  affected  it  as  to  make  such 
writing  almost  unintelligible  to  one  who  does  not  know 
the  Arabic  and  Persian  vocabularies,  while  the  forms  of  Per- 
sian literary  art  have  so  overcome  Turkish  belles-lettres 
that  a Turkish  poem  may  be  quite  unintelligible  to  one  who 
is  not  a Persian  scholar.  This  influence  is  seen  also  in 
India  in  the  somewhat  artificial  distinction  between  Hindi, 
Hindustani  and  Urdu.  Urdu,  as  the  language  of  the  camp, 
has  been  most  largely  affected  by  Persian  and  Arabic;  the 
others  feel  this  influence  in  a diminishing  degree.  The 
other  Moslem  languages,  such  as  the  dialects  of  eastern 
Turkish,  Pushtu,  Berber,  Kurdish,  Malay  and  the  African 
dialects,  have  been  influenced  in  the  same  ways.  The 
Arabic,  also,  spoken  in  the  different  Arabic  speaking  re- 
gions from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  breaks  up  into 
marked  dialects,  and  this  has  affected,  in  vocabulary,  at  least, 
the  written  Arabic  of  the  different  countries.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  may  be  well  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  mission- 
ary in  these  Arabic  speaking  lands  must  carefully  distin- 
guish between  the  language  spoken  by  the  people  and  that 
written  by  those  who  can  write.  The  difference  is  some- 
times almost  as  great  as  between  ancient  and  modern  Greek, 
or  even  as  between  Latin  and  Italian. 

(7)  The  Political  Situation. — There  are  five  sorts  of 
Moslem  countries,  past  or  present:  (1)  Those  which  are 

independent  and  under  Moslem  rule,  such  as  the  different 
Arabian  states,  Persia  and  Afghanistan.  (2)  Those  which 

26 


ISLAM  S POLITICAL  DEVELOPMENT 


are  still  mainly  Moslem,  but  under  Christian  protectorates, 
such  as  Egypt  and  the  Moslem  protected  states  of  the  In- 
dian empire.  (3)  Those  which  have  been  lost  to  Moslem 
rule  entirely,  but  still  have  a Moslem  population  either  in 
whole  or  in  part,  such  as  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  men- 
tioned above,  Algeria,  Tunisia,  Tripoli,  Cyprus  and  Crete, 
and  British  India.  Morocco  seems  to  come  between  the 
second  and  third  classes.  (4)  Those  which  have  been  re- 
conquered by  Christendom  and  have  ceased  to  be  Moslem 
even  in  population,  such  as  Spain,  Greece,  Hungary.  Rou- 
mania,  Bulgaria  and  Servia.  (5)  The  present  situation  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire  is  so  uncertain  and  its  future  so  dubious 
that  it  cannot  be  fitted  into  any  classification.  Of  that  great 
realm,  for  many  centuries  Constantinople  has  been  in  large 
measure  the  center  of  political  influence  and  of  persecuting 
activity;  Cairo  the  great  intellectual  center,  the  brain  of 
Islam,  directing  educational,  controversial  or  propagandist 
measures;  while  Mecca  has  been  the  unquestioned  center  of 
religious  activity,  the  heart  that  pulsates  with  a life  which 
is  felt  to  the  farthest  limits  of  Mohammedan  influence. 

III.  The  Social,  Political  and  Constitutional 
I Development  of  Islam 

Islam  as  a system  must  be  judged  in  the  light  of  its 
I social  and  political  values,  no  less  than  from  the  standpoint 
i of  its  religious  achievements.  But  first,  what  is  Islam? 

There  are  four  bases  or  sources  for  Islam,  both  as  to 
theology  {kalam)  and  canon  law  {fiqh) : First,  the  Koran, 

, the  absolute  Word  of  Allah;  second,  the  Usage  (sunna)  of 
the  prophet,  what  he  said,  did  or  approved  by  silence,  ex- 
I pressed  in  separate  traditions,  each  called  a hadlth;  third, 

I Analogy  (qiyas)  from  Koran  and  Usage;  and  fourth,  the 

j general  Agreement  {ijma‘)  of  the  Moslem  people,  expressed 

27 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


through  the  opinions  of  those  who  by  knowledge  and  study 
have  a right  to  a personal  judgment  {ijtihcLd).  It  might 
be  thought  that  the  Koran,  being  the  word  of  Allah  him- 
self, would  be  the  dominant  source,  but  while  in  form  it 
is  always  handled  with  the  greatest  reverence,  its  plain 
statements  have  been  modified,  and  even  reversed,  by  both 
tradition  and  agreement.  Agreement,  especially,  has  come 
to  have  the  final  and  absolute  voice.  Its  status  is  expressed 
in  an  alleged  tradition  from  the  prophet,  “My  people  will 
never  agree  in  an  error.”  In  consequence,  the  Moslem 
people,  when  its  judgment  can  be  brought  to  an  agreement, 
is  deemed  infallible.  But  the  separate  ijtihads,  through 
which  such  a result  has  been  reached,  are  only  fallible  opin- 
ions {sann).  The  present  reforming  party  in  Islam  hopes 
to  use  this  principle  to  make  Islam  possible  in  the  modern 
world. 

Islam  socially  may  be  considered  under  three  heads;  the 
individual,  the  family  and  the  community. 

(1)  The  Individual. — Islam  emphasizes  the  independence 
of  the  individual.  Although  the  Agreement  of  the  Moslem 
people  is  the  final  basis  for  decision  as  to  what  is  of  faith 
and  practice  in  Islam,  yet  the  religious  relationship  of  the 
individual  to  Allah  and  his  responsibility  to  him  are  inde- 
pendent of  any  organization.  No  church  or  priest  comes 
between  him  and  Allah.  It  is,  of  course,  more  meritorious 
to  worship  with  the  community,  but  individual  worship  is 
equally  valid.  The  Moslem  has  no  special  relation  to  any 
particular  mosque,  as  we  have  to  a particular  church,  nor 
does  the  pastoral  relationship  exist  between  him  and  any 
of  the  officials  of  a mosque.  His  nearest  approach  to  any- 
thing of  this  kind  is  his  membership  in  a fraternity  of 
dervishes.  There  he  is  part  of  a community  and  worships 
as  such. 

It  is  an  individual  duty  upon  the  Moslem  to  gain  such 
knowledge  as  will  be  necessary  or  useful  for  his  life  here 

28 


Islam’s  political  development 


in  the  world  and  to  insure  his  salvation  in  the  world  to 
come.  All  sciences  are  divided  into  those  thus  useful  or 
not.  It  is  his  religious  duty  while  cultivating  the  one  class 
to  avoid  giving  time  or  attention  to  anything  which  cannot 
be  clearly  shown  to  be  useful  for  these  purposes.  He  must 
therefore  restrain  himself  from  any  curiosity  as  to  the 
merely  interesting.  This  limitation  has  been  one  of  the 
greatest  handicaps  upon  the  development  of  the  civilization 
of  Islam.  Another  real  limitation  has  been  the  theological 
nature  of  all  education.  Beginning  with  the  boy  who 
learns  his  letters  from  the  Koran,  the  whole  system  of  edu- 
cation has  been  molded  to  produce  theologians.  This  su- 
preme interest  in  things  theological  and  religious  has  fos- 
tered the  university  end  of  education  and  has  left  unde- 
veloped the  common  school.  The  teaching  of  the  three  Rs 
and  the  fostering  of  a wide  spirit  of  interest  in  life  and  in 
the  workings  of  nature  have  been  made  subservient  to  the 
production  of  divinity  students.  Few,  however,  can  hope 
to  take  such  a university  course,  and  the  consequence  is 
that  illiteracy  is  very  general  among  Moslems.  In  no  Mos- 
lem land  can  as  many  as  ten  percent,  of  the  inhabitants 
read  or  write,  while  even  in  Egypt,  which  has  enjoyed 
signal  opportunities  through  an  entire  generation  of  British 
occupation,  only  four  percent,  of  the  Mohammedan  popu- 
lation can  read  and  write.  Illiteracy,  however,  does  not 
carry  the  same  reproach  in  the  Orient  that  it  does  in  the 
West.  Mohammed  Ali,  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  influen- 
tial of  Egyptian  rulers,  was  illiterate. 

The  moral  side  of  the  life  of  the  individual  is  largely 
affected  by  the  duty  of  imitating  the  prophet.  It  is  the 
theory  of  Islam  that  a religious  man  should  model  his  life 
in  every  possible  way  upon  that  of  Mohammed.  Naturally, 
each  man  selects  those  traits  in  the  life  and  character  of 
the  prophet  which  conform  best  to  his  own  character.  Mo- 
hammed had  a many-sided  personality.  It  would  be  pos- 


29 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


sible  for  a truly  moral  man  to  find  in  the  record  of  his 
earlier  life  a basis  for  moral  conduct.  It  would  also  be 
possible  for  a man  who  is  sensual,  revengeful,  superstitious, 
ambitious  or  scheming  to  find  in  Mohammed’s  life  ample 
justification  for  the  cultivation  of  those  traits.  It  is  also 
true  that  the  casuistry  of  the  schools  of  canon  law  has 
tended  to  put  a system  of  minute  rules  of  conduct  in  the 
place  of  moral  principles.  Yet  we  must  remember  that 
casuistry  and  legalism  have  everywhere  exhibited  this  ten- 
dency. The  ethical  treatises  of  Islam,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  always  tended  to  go  back  to  fundamentals.  The  indi- 
vidual Moslem  will  follow  whichever  of  those  two  methods 
suits  his  character. 

A final  handicap  upon  the  moral  life  of  the  individual 
is  that  Islam  positively  requires  him  to  make  a distinction 
in  his  attitude  towards  those  who  are  of  his  own  faith  and 
those  who  are  not.  It  is  impossible  for  a Moslem  who  fol- 
lows the  Koran  and  the  tradition,  as  is  his  duty,  to  be  a 
sincere  friend  of  a non-Moslem.  Of  course,  many  have  been 
and  are,  but  in  so  far  they  have  abandoned  explicit  Islam. 

(2)  The  Family. — The  essential  elements  in  the  theory 
of  the  family  are  patriarchal  control  with  its  accompanying 
conception  of  woman  as  an  inferior  being  and  the  duty  of 
marriage  within  Islam.  Islam  regards  the  married  life  and 
the  sexual  act  as  essentially  religious.  It  recognizes  ascetic 
practises,  both  positive  and  negative,  but  asceticism  in  Islam 
has  never  required  celibacy. 

The  social  status  of  woman  is  lowered  in  four  ways: 
(a)  By  seclusion  and  the  institution  of  the  veil.  This  has 
arisen  through  the  Agreement  of  the  Moslem  people,  and 
did  not  belong  to  original  Islam.  The  passages  in  the 
Koran  requiring  it  were  meant  to  apply  only  to  the  wives 
of  Mohammed  and  not  to  other  women,  but  naturally  later 
generations  came  to  regard  the  treatment  of  the  wives  of 
the  prophet  as  a guide  for  the  action  of  all  religiously 


30 


Islam’s  political  development 


minded  men  and  women.  The  veil  and  seclusion  have 
therefore  been  extended  as  a general  religious  duty.  Cir- 
cumstances, however,  have  often  militated  against  it.  Thus 
the  free  life  of  the  desert  has  never  permitted  either  seclu- 
sion or  the  veil,  and  the  same  holds  generally  of  the  peasant 
classes  everywhere.  The  higher  the  rank  in  society,  the 
more  carefully  secluded  have  the  women  been,  (b)  By 
polygamy.  The  Koran,  as  interpreted  by  the  Agreement, 
permits  four  legal  wives  at  the  same  time.  This,  however, 
is  limited  in  practice  in  many  ways.  The  parents  of  a bride 
may  so  draw  up  the  contract  as  to  compel  the  husband  to 
divorce  her  before  he  marries  another  wife.  Also,  they 
are  often  loth  to  permit  their  daughter  to  become  a second 
wife.  Conditions  of  expense  are  a real  limitation,  for  each 
wife  has  strictly  a right  to  a separate  establishment.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  certain  classes,  especially  the  agricultural, 
an  additional  wife  may  be  a source  of  revenue,  since  the 
wives  are  all  expected  to  work,  (c)  By  concubinage.  A 
man  may  lawfully  treat  his  female  slave  as  his  concubine. 
The  number  of  such  concubines  is  limited,  therefore,  only 
by  the  number  of  female  slaves  he  possesses.  The  children 
of  such  concubines  rank,  so  far  as  freedom  and  inheritance 
are  concerned,  with  the  children  of  his  free  wives.  It  is, 
however,  open  to  the  master  to  deny  that  he  is  the  father 
of  the  child,  but  this  he  seldom  does.  The  mother  of  such 
a child  cannot  legally  be  sold.  She  remains  a slave,  but 
becomes  automatically  free  at  the  death  of  her  master  and 
the  father  of  her  child.  The  practise  is  not  unknown  of  a 
man  buying  a female  slave,  freeing  her  and  then  marrying 
her.  This  is  supposed  to  secure  a more  submissive  wife, 
since  she  has  no  family  behind  her  to  protect  her.  The 
essential  difference  between  marriage  and  concubinage  is 
that  marriage  and  slavehood  cannot  exist  together.  A 
free  man  may  be  the  husband  of  the  slave  of  another  man, 
but  he  cannot  be  the  husband  of  his  own  slave.  This  has 


31 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


produced  some  curious  legal  complications,  (d)  By  divorce. 
The  husband  has  the  right  to  divorce  at  will,  although  this 
is  often  limited  in  different  ways  by  terms  in  the  marriage 
contract.  He  may  thus  be  required  in  the  contract  to  pay 
his  divorced  wife  a very  large  sum  as  a sort  of  suspended 
dowry,  if  he  divorces  her  against  her  will.  The  wife  also 
has  a right  to  divorce,  but  only  on  the  action  of  a court  of 
justice  and  for  certain  reasons,  such  as  impotence,  leprosy 
or  non-support.  To  sum  up,  divorce  is  much  more  preva- 
lent than  polygamy.  It  and  the  unlimited  servile  concu- 
binage are  the  great  evils.  Seclusion  varies  with  social 
classes  and  in  different  countries  and  is  regarded  by 
Moslem  women  as  a sign  of  consideration  and  care  rather 
than  as  an  imprisonment.  Respectable  Moslem  women 
would  in  a very  large  majority  resent  being  brought  more 
openly  before  the  world.  At  this  point  it  becomes  quite 
clear  that  the  elevation  of  the  social  status  of  Moslem 
womanhood  implies  first  her  education.  It  should  also  be 
remembered  that  the  oldest  wife  in  the  harem  or  the  hus- 
band’s mother  (al-kabira)  has  a position  of  respect  and 
dominance  which  may  under  circumstances  of  character, 
etc.,  even  override  the  patriarchal  idea. 

The  treatment  of  children  in  Islam,  as  everywhere,  has 
varied  with  the  social  conditions.  Religiously  a child  is 
regarded  as  entrusted  by  Allah  to  the  parents.  Children, 
therefore,  are  not  merely  regarded  as  a joy  and  comfort 
to  their  parents;  the  possession  of  them  also  has  religious 
meaning.  The  status  of  the  mother  in  Paradise  will  be 
affected  by  the  fact  of  her  having  borne  children,  and  the 
father  may  be  aided  after  death  by  his  predeceased  children. 
.A.11  children  are  supposed  to  be  born  Moslems.  Thereafter 
their  parents  may  make  them  Christians,  Jews,  etc.  Re- 
ligious Islam  has  laid  great  stress  upon  the  training  of 
children.  It  has  not  developed  a science  of  pedagogy,  but 
all  religious  manuals  treat  of  their  religious  nurture.  The 

32 


ISLAM  S POLITICAL  DEVELOPMENT 


nurture  of  children  therefore  is  an  excellent  point  of  ap- 
proach to  the  individual  Moslem.  Love  and  sympathy 
expressed  toward  his  children,  admiration  of  them,  pro- 
vided it  is  couched  in  a form  that  will  not  suggest  the  evil 
eye,  will  always  bring  a smiling  response.  All  this,  of 
course,  is  ideal  Islam.  The  facts  of  actual  life  will  be 
affected  by  personal  disposition  and  by  social  conditions. 

(3)  The  Community. — While  the  Moslem  stands  as  an 
individual  immediately  in  the  presence  of  Allah  it  is  the 
whole  community  of  Islam,  by  its  Agreement,  which  has  a 
right  to  tell  him  what  Islam  really  is,  what  he  must  believe 
and  do.  It  would  not  be  easy  to  exaggerate  the  intensity 
of  the  community  feeling  uniting  the  whole  of  Islam.  It 
is  true  that  from  time  to  time  separate  national  conscious- 
nesses have  arisen  and  that  one  of  the  most  promising  signs 
at  the  present  time  is  the  appearance  of  such  in  the  Moslem 
world.  A good  example  at  the  present  day  is  the  sharp 
division  between  Arab  and  Turkish  Moslems.  Yet  the 
tendency  has  always  been  to  knit  all  Moslems  together  in 
a common  brotherhood,  uniting  them  and  setting  them  off 
against  all  non-Moslems.  It  is  a chief  glory  of  Islam  that 
it  has  risen  above  the  conception  of  inferior  races.  All 
races,  black,  brown,  yellow  and  white,  are  equal  as  Moslems. 
This  equality  is  not  only  religious;  it  is  also  social.  There 
is  in  Islam  nothing  analogous  to  the  social  gulf  between 
the  European  and  the  native  which  persists  notwithstanding 
the  uniting  power  of  missionary  teaching. 

With  all  this  strength  of  community  feeling  it  is  a singu- 
lar fact  that  the  Moslem  world  has  not  tended  of  itself  to 
progress.  It  has  enjoyed  many  more  or  less  brief  flowering 
periods,  but  these  have  always  been  under  the  stimulus  of 
the  patronage  of  an  individual  ruler  or  of  a dynasty.  They 
have  always  died  down  when  that  stimulus  failed.  Ex- 
planations have  been  sought  for  these  individual  cases  of 
rise  and  fall;  but  their  uniformity  calls  for  a general 


33 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


explanation,  which  is  by  no  means  easy  to  find.  It  may 
be  that  it  is  to  be  found,  if  in  part  only,  in  what  has  been 
written  above  on  Moslem  education  (p.  28)  and  on  the 
prohibition  of  interest  in  the  non-immediately  useful  (p. 
82).  It  is  certain  that  the  Moslem  community  has  broadly 
exhibited  a certain  apathy  and  lack  of  public  spirit.  Islam 
has  tended  to  encourage  extreme  submission  to  the  will  of 
Allah,  no  matter  how  desperate  be  one’s  poverty.  What 
each  one  has  is,  in  theological  language,  the  sustenance 
{rizq)  which  Allah  has  granted  to  the  individual  and,  the 
theologians  say,  “Let  not  a man  think  that  he  will  not  eat 
his  sustenance  or  that  another  than  he  will  eat  his  suste- 
nance.” 

There  can  be  no  question  that  the  institution  of  slavery 
has  also  played  a part  in  hindering  the  development  of  the 
community,  although  the  physical  well-being  of  a slave 
in  Islam  has  often  been  happier  than  that  of  the  poor  free- 
man. The  fact  in  itself  that  slaves  or  their  children  may 
easily  pass  over  into  the  ranks  of  free  Moslems  and  that, 
in  fact,  the  social  intercourse  between  slaves  and  the  free 
has  always  been  easy,  has  tended  to  introduce  into  Moslem 
life  the  attitudes  and  vices  that  must  characterize  a slave 
population. 

The  missionary  should  always  remember  that  the  two 
classes  of  Moslems  with  which  he  is  brought  most  nearly 
into  contact  are  analogous,  on  the  one  hand,  to  our  slum 
population,  and,  on  the  other,  to  our  social  Four  Hundred. 
In  neither  of  these  would  we  look  for  marked  community 
virtues. 

(4)  The  Government  of  Islam. — A Moslem  Sunnite  gov- 
ernment is  a singular  combination  of  democracy  and  absolu- 
tism. The  theory  is  that  the  Moslem  people  shall  govern 
itself,  but  that  it  chooses  as  an  executive  a single  individual 
and  gives  him  what  is  practically  absolute  authority.  It 
is  for  him  to  administer  Islam.  He  cannot  make  or  even 


34 


ISLAM  S POLITICAL  DEVELOPMENT 


promulgate  either  theology  or  law.  He  can  only  take  what 
the  Agreement  of  the  people  has  reached  and  administer 
that.  If  he  breaks  any  of  the  fundamental  institutions  of 
Islam,  the  people  that  chose  and  appointed  him  may  recall 
him.  This  has  meant  in  Moslem  history  absolutism  tem- 
pered by  revolution.  But,  of  course,  enterprising  rulers  and 
dynasties  have  found  thmselves  compelled  to  establish  laws 
without  basis  in  the  Agreement  and  even  in  opposition  to 
it.  In  Turkey  today  we  find  a parliament  set  up  and  ap- 
parently dividing  authority  with  the  older-fashioned  head 
of  the  state.  This  is  explained  away  by  calling  the  parlia- 
ment a consultative  body,  and  by  pointing  out  that  even 
Mohammed  consulted  with  his  followers  at  Medina.  It 
must  also  be  remembered  that  in  theory  the  Moslem  state 
is  a church  state  and  that  Islam  includes  within  itself  both 
theology  and  law.  The  problem  for  the  future  Islam  is  to 
separate  those  two  elements;  and  inasmuch  as  the  combina- 
tion goes  back  to  the  prophet  himself,  and  has  been  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Agreement  for  a thousand  years,  it  is  hard 
to  see  how  that  unity  can  be  relaxed  and  Islam  be  turned 
into  a modern  political  state.  For  this  reason  it  has  never 
been  possible  for  non-Moslems  to  be  citizens  in  a Moslem 
state;  they  have  been  the  wards  of  the  state.  But  now  in 
practically  all  Moslem  states,  except  perhaps  those  of  cen- 
tral Arabia,  the  canon  law  of  Islam  applies  only  to  matters 
of  marriage,  divorce,  inheritance  and  to  all  personal  re- 
ligious affairs,  while  other  legal  relations  are  under  dif- 
ferent law^  codes.  In  Turkey,  e.g.,  the  code  is  a form  of 
the  Code  Napoleon.  This  holds  especially  of  Moslem  states 
under  non-Moslem  protection  or  control,  where  the  public 
law  code  has  been  imposed  upon  them  from  without.  But 
the  same  tendency  appeared  in  Islam  practically  from  the 
first. 

(5)  The  Constitutional  Development  of  Islam. — With  the 
death  of  Mohammed  the  Mohammedan  state  faced  a future 


35 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


for  which  it  had  few  precedents.  Mohammed  had  been  a 
prophet-ruler  and  though  he  had  consulted  with  his  follow- 
ers, yet  no  one  could  deny  his  divinely-given  authority. 
Under  his  rule  the  Moslem  state  was  a theocracy,  because 
the  ruler  of  the  state  was  Allah  through  the  mouth  of 
Mohammed,  his  prophet,  but  under  Mohammed’s  succes- 
sors the  rule  passed  in  theory  most  absolutely  to  the  Moslem 
people.  The  term  theocracy,  therefore,  no  longer  applied 
to  the  Moslem  state.  The  ruling  successor  of  the  prophet 
therefore  could  not  be  exactly  like  him,  although  he  was 
to  be  called  his  successor  {khalifa).  The  government  of 
an  Arab  tribe  afforded  little  guidance,  for  its  sheiks 
have  never  exercised  anything  but  a kind  of  influence 
and  the  people  of  Islam  were  facing  a future  for  which 
some  more  centralized  and  autocratic  government  was 
essential.  As  has  been  said  above,  the  Moslem  people 
decided  to  select  a single  head  and  to  make  him  their  ex- 
ecutive. Two  principles  of  selection  were  permitted,  one 
of  election  by  the  people,  the  other  of  nomination  by  his 
predecessor.  The  first  four  caliphs,  Abu  Bekr  {Abu 
Bakr),  Omar  {‘Umar),  Othman  {‘Uthnidn)  and  AH  {‘Alt), 
were  chosen  in  gradually  increasing  tribal  jealousy  and 
strife.  Their  rule  covered  about  thirty  years,  looked  back 
to  by  later  Islam  as  a golden  age.  They  are  called  the 
“rightly  guided”  caliphs.  Political  chaos  followed  for  a 
time,  until  the  Omayyad  dynasty  swung  itself  to  power, 
and  removed  the  seat  of  the  government  to  Damascus.  But 
another  idea  had  been  developing  as  to  the  government  of 
the  Moslem  people.  Many  had  come  to  believe  that  the 
method  by  democratic  election  was  false;  that  the  people 
had  not  the  right  to  appoint,  but  that  Allah  himself  was 
the  appointer;  further,  that  he  had  appointed  the  family 
of  Ali  and  Fatima  {Fatima),  the  daughter  of  Mohammed, 
to  rule  the  people  in  virtue  of  blood-relationship.  Some- 
times stress  was  laid  on  descent  from  the  prophet,  some- 


36 


Islam’s  political  development 

times  on  a right  belonging  to  Ali,  which  in  the  end  tended 
to  see  in  his  descendants  an  element  of  divinity.  Thus  a 
legitimist  party,  called  the  Shiah  or  “sect”  {Shl‘a),  came 
into  being  in  Islam  as  opposed  to  the  democratic  Sunnites. 
The  Abbasid  dynasty  followed  the  Omayyads  and  the 
legitimists  split  into  different  branches.  “All  Persia  be- 
lieves that  the  twelfth  in  descent  from  Ali  was  removed 
by  Allah  from  the  sight  of  men  and  is  now  being  pre- 
served alive  in  retirement  until  his  time  to  reappear  shall 
come.  This  withdrawal  happened  about  A.D.  874,  and  still 
for  Persians,  after  more  than  a thousand  years,  he  is  ‘the 
awaited  one’  (Al-Muntazar),  and  the  real  head  of  their 
government.  For  them  the  Shah  is  only  a locum  tenens 
to  keep  public  order  and  no  successor  of  the  prophet.  This 
‘invisible  imam’  is  believed  also  to  control  the  destinies  of 
his  people  by  mysterious  channels.”  ^ The  learned  theolo- 
gians of  Kerbela  and  Nejef,  called  mujtahids  by  Shiites,  are 
regarded  as  his  agents  in  this  control,  claiming  to  represent 
him.  “Another  legitimist  party  in  Islam  limits  the  right  to 
the  Khalifate  to  the  descendants  of  the  prophet,  who  are 
called  ‘nobles’  (sharif).  This  party  differs  from  the  one 
above  in  that  it  is  mostly  Sunnite  in  theology  and  law,  and 
while  some  sections  of  it  ascribe  hereditary  saintship  to  the 
prophetic  line  with  a power  of  working  miracles  there  is  no 
taint  among  them  of  incarnation  doctrines.  Their  attitude  is 
a development  of  the  general  Moslem  respect  for  the  family 
of  Mohammed.”  ^ This  party  is  represented  by  the  Zaidites 
in  Yemen  and  by  the  present  reigning  house  in  Morocco.  At 
Mecca  there  are  two  families  of  “nobles,”  a representative  of 
one  of  which  has  just  been  proclaimed  ruler  of  the  Hejaz.^ 
A final  group  of  claimants  of  independent  sovereignty  may 
be  described  as  Puritan  and  non-conformist.  They  are 

1 Macdonald,  article  on  The  Caliphate  in  The  Nation,  July  13,  1916,  p.  33, 
reprinted  in  The  Moslem  World  for  October,  1917. 

2 Id.  ib.  p.  34. 

3 Arabic  Nijds,  the  province  in  which  Mecca  is  situated. 


37 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


descendants  of  seceders  from  the  general  body  of  Islam, 
because  of  its  decadence  from  democratic  simplicity  and 
theological  rigidity.  In  consequence  they  are  to  a great 
extent  regarded  as  outside  of  the  people  of  Islam,  and  their 
ideal  in  government  is  the  primitive  tribe  in  the  desert  with 
a chief  who  can  exercise  only  influence  over  a democracy 
of  individuals.  Of  these  are  the  Ibadites  of  Oman  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  at  Zanzibar,  and  another 
group  in  the  mountains  of  southern  Algeria.  The  Wah- 
habites  and  other  reforming  parties  in  Islam  will  be  treated 
later.^ 

IV.  The  Doctrinal  Content  of  Islam 

Every  worker  among  Moslems  should  have  a clear  con- 
ception of  the  religious  appeal  which  Islam  makes  to  the 
Moslem  mind  as  opposed  to  the  reaction  to  it  of  the  Chris- 
tian mind.  What  seems  absurd  to  the  latter  may  not  be 
so  at  all  to  the  former.  Furthermore,  in  studying  the 
Moslem  theologia.!  system  it  is  necessary  to  keep  strictly 
within  its  limits  anvl  not  to  draw  all  the  logical  implications 
which  seem  natural.  No  system  ever  devised  could  stand 
such  treatment.  In  every  Moslem  country,  moreover,  a 
distinction  has  to  be  made  between  the  book-Islam  of  the 
theologians  and  the  Islam  of  the  masses.  Book-Islam  is 
the  same  throughout  the  Moslem  world;  the  Islam  of  the 
masses  varies  in  every  country,  because  it  is  a combination 
of  the  previous  beliefs  of  the  people  with  the  new  religion 
which  they  have  adopted.  Among  the  religious  beliefs 
which  hold  a prominent  place  in  the  Mohammedan  mind  are 
the  following: 

(1)  Allah. — By  far  the  most  important  theme  in  Moslem 
theology  is  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  God.  The  question 
most  carefully  discussed  is  the  relationship  of  his  essence 

' See  article  “The  Arabian  Situation”  in  The  Nation  for  November  8,  1917. 

38 


ISLAM  S DOCTRINAL  CONTENT 


to  his  qualities,  such  as  power,  will,  knowledge,  etc.,  and  it 
cannot  be  overemphasized  for  the  missionary  that  he  must 
go  to  the  labor  of  thoroughly  learning  the  list  of  qualities 
of  Allah  as  given  in  Moslem  textbooks  with  the  different 
classifications  of  these  qualities.  Only  in  this  way  can  he 
realize  the  extreme  subtlety  of  the  subject  and  its  impor- 
tance for  the  Moslem  mind.  The  ultimate  position  of  or- 
thodox Islam  is  summed  up  in  the  words,  “They  arc  not 
he  nor  are  they  other  than  he,”  that  is,  the  relationship  is 
a theological  mystery.  Of  these  qualities  the  most  impor- 
tant theologically  is  his  will.  Islam  makes  every  effort  to 
avoid  any  limitation  of  the  will  of  Allah.  It  regards  will 
as  the  sum  of  personality  and  even  shrinks  in  the  case  of 
Allah  from  ascribing  to  him  reason,  because  that  would 
imply  something  prior  to  will.^  This,  of  course,  holds  true 
only  in  technical  systematic  theology.  The  Allah  of  religion 
is  pictured  in  quite  anthropomorphic  terms.  For  the  Allah 
of  theology  is  worked  out  by  logic  on  the  basis  of  absolute 
unity,  while  the  Allah  of  religion  is  worked  out  through  the 
experiences  of  the  religious  mind.  The  Christian  can  con- 
verse sympathetically  about  God  with  a religiously  minded 
Moslem  so  long  as  they  are  dealing  with  their  own  religious 
experiences;  but  let  the  Christian  introduce  anything  which 
suggests  Christianity  as  opposed  to  Islam  and  the  Moslem 
will  at  once  abandon  the  God  of  his  religious  experience 
and  take  refuge  in  the  impregnable  system  of  the  logical 
theologians.  Another  very  important  quality  of  Allah  is 
speech  {kalam).  It  is  said  to  have  existed  from  all  eternity 
in  his  essence  and  that  by  means  of  it  Allah  has  created  all 
things.  The  Koran  is  an  earthly  manifestation  of  this 
eternal  quality  and  is,  therefore,  to  be  regarded  as  eternal 
and  uncreated.^ 

1 This  is  only  one  of  the  points  which  come  under  the  doctrine  of  the  dif- 
ference (mukhalafa)  between  Allah  and  all  created  beings.  See  p.  58. 

2 See  the  article,  “Allah,”  by  Professor  Macdonald  in  the  “Encyclopedia  of 
Islam.”  It  has  a full  bibliography. 


39 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


(2)  Created  Beings. — All  beings  fall  into  two  classes, 
Allah  and  his  creatures.  Allah  has  created  by  his  will  and 
power  everything  that  exists  besides  himself.  He  alone 
possesses  absolute  existence;  all  created  beings  have  only  a 
dependent,  relative  existence.  Intelligent  created  beings 
fall  into  three  classes:  the  angels,  the  jinn  and  mankind. 
Angels  are  spirits  who  live  in  the  very  presence  of  Allah 
and  execute  his  commands ; jinn  are  spirits  in  general,  good 
or  evil.^  All  created  beings  are  described  by  Islam  as  the 
slaves  {‘ihad)  or,  as  we  might  put  it,  the  creatures  of  Allah. 
He  is  the  Lord  (rabb)  that  is,  their  owner.  Islam  is  un- 
certain whether  to  classify  Iblis^  and  the  devils  generally 
as  fallen  angels  or  as  malignant  and  unbelieving  jinn. 

(3)  The  Nature  of  Mankind. — Man,  according  to  the 
Koran,  was  created  of  clay  and,  therefore,  by  his  created 
nature  is  unclean  and  sinful.  Allah  placed  him,  when 
created,  in  a Garden,  but,  on  the  temptation  of  Iblis  he  dis- 
obeyed Allah  and  was  driven  out.  This  is  the  Moslem  idea 
of  the  fall;  it  was  not  a change  of  nature,  but  an  expulsion 
from  a happy  life  and  a change  of  a mode  of  existence. 
Iblis  and  Allah  since  then  have  been  in  conflict  to  gain  men 
to  themselves,  and  will  so  be  until  the  day  of  Judgment. 
Iblis  acts  upon  man’s  sinful  nature,  while  Allah  tries  to 
instruct  man  in  the  way  of  salvation. 

(4)  Salvation. — Allah,  therefore,  from  the  beginning  has 
sent  a series  of  messengers  or  prophets  to  mankind,  in- 
structing them  in  all  things  of  which  they  have  need,  both 
of  the  world  and  of  religion,  forbidding  them  and  com- 
manding them.  This  is  his  guidance  (huda)  of  mankind. 
Salvation  for  man  consists  in  his  repentance  and  complete 
submission  to  Allah,  which  involves  acceptance  of  the  laws 
of  Islam  as  binding  upon  him.  For  that  he  must  have 
belief  (tmdn)  in  his  heart  and  a confession  (iqrdr)  of  that 

1 See  the  article,  “Demons  and  Spirits”  (Muslim),  “Encyclopedia  of  Religion 
and  Ethics,”  vol.  iv,  pp.  615-619.  Sec  also  vol.  i,  p.  669  f. 

2 'Iblis  is  the  Mohammedan  equivalent  of  Satan. 

40 


ISLAM  S DOCTRINAL  CONTENT 


belief  upon  his  tongue  and  must  follow  these  up  with  good 
works  {‘amal).  He  is  then  a believer  and  will  not  enter 
the  Fire  except,  perhaps,  as  a kind  of  purgatory.  If  he 
dies  a believer,  but  with  a great  sin  unrepented,  Allah  may 
make  him  pass  a certain  time  in  the  Fire  as  atonement  for 
this  sin,  or  may  freely  forgive.  The  Fire,  therefore,  is 
purgatory  for  those  who  have  admitted  their  obligation  to 
obey  Allah;  in  the  Fire  their  infractions  of  this  admitted 
Law  are  purged  away.  But  the  Fire  is  hell  for  all  unbe- 
lievers who  have  not  so  accepted  the  obligation  of  the  law 
of  Islam  and  in  it  they  will  abide  eternally.^  Conversion 
takes  place  among  Moslems  as  among  Christians,  but  very 
frequently  it  is  based  upon  what  has  been  called  other- 
worldliness. The  fear  of  the  Fire  played  an  important  part 
in  Mohammed’s  own  religious  experience,  and  has  played 
a great  part  in  that  of  the  most  spiritual  Moslems  since 
his  day. 

(5)  The  Messengers  of  Salvation. — Prophets  (nabi)  are 
the  messengers  (rasfd)  of  Allah  to  men.  He  confirms  their 
authority  by  means  of  evidential  miracles  {mu‘jizat),  and 
often  their  message  takes  the  form  of  an  inspired  book, 
a sacred  Scripture.  The  first  of  the  prophets  was  Adam 
and  the  last  is  Mohammed.  After  Mohammed  there  will 
come  no  prophet.  In  the  Koran  a certain  number  of  proph- 
ets is  mentioned  and  stories  are  told  about  them.  These 
stories  are  taken  mostly  from  the  Old  and  the  New  Testa- 
ments, but  there  are  others  besides,  some  unidentified.  All 
prophets  have  taught  the  same  theology,  which  is  that  of 
Islam,  but  the  ritual  law  of  each  has  varied,  and  each  has 
a special  standing  and  name.  Thus  Abraham  is  called  the 
friend  (khalll)  of  Allah;  Moses  is  the  one  who  spoke 
(kalim)  with  Allah;  and  Jesus  is  the  spirit  (rilh)  of  Allah. 
For  the  peculiar  position  of  Jesus  in  Islam  see  below. 

1 For  instance,  one  who  neglects  the  observance  of  the  fast  at  Ramadan  (p. 
48)  will  be  temporarily  punished  in  hell,  Moslem  casuists  declare;  lie  who 
denies  the  necessity  of  keeping  it  is  an  unbeliever  and  will  incur  eternal 
punishment. 


41 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


(6)  The  Sacred  Books. — There  is  mention  in  the  Koran 
of  a large  number  of  sacred  books  which  have  been  sent 
down  from  heaven.  Abraham  had  certain  “leaves” 
(suhuf)  revealed  to  him;  Moses  had  the  Law  (taurat) ; 
David  had  the  Psalms  {zabur)  and  Jesus  had  the  Gospel 
(injll).  Finally  the  Koran  {Qur'an)  was  revealed  through 
Mohammed.  It  is  eternal,  unchangeable  and  incorruptible. 
The  supreme  authority  and  value  of  the  Koran  are  unques- 
tioned. It  is,  however,  often  quite  unintelligible,  even  to 
a Moslem,  without  explanation.  It  contains  very  varied 
material,  often  jumbled  together.  Each  section  is  called 
a sura.^  Moslems  know  each  one  by  its  title,  such  as  the 
Cow  or  the  Pen,  borrowed  from  some  word  or  phrase  in 
the  section. 

Moslems  vary  in  their  positions  regarding  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Jews  and  the  Christians.  Some  teach  that 
the  present  existing  books  are  absolute  forgeries  and  that 
Allah  has  taken  away  the  originals.  Others  admit  that  they 
are  the  originals,  but  have  been  defaced  by  fatal  omissions, 
especially  of  prophecies  regarding  Mohammed.  Still  others 
state  that  while  they  are  the  originals,  they  have  had 
actual  changes  made  in  them,  and  that,  therefore,  they 
cannot  be  regarded  as  trustworthy.  The  position  of  Mo- 
hammed himself  seems  to  have  been  that  the  Jews  possessed 
the  original  Law  unchanged,  but  expounded  it  falsely. 

(7)  Jesus  and  the  Mahdi. — The  statements  about  Jesus 
in  the  Koran  give  him  a unique  nature  and  position  among 
the  prophets  of  Islam.  It  is  difficult  to  see  why  he  was  sent 
with  that  unique  nature,  and  it  is  hard  to  escape  the  conclu- 
sion that  Mohammed  delivered  up  to  a certain  point  what 
he  had  been  taught  and  knew  about  Jesus,  but  omitted  the 
reasons  for  his  coming.  We  are  led  to  the  very  border 
of  a logos  doctrine,  but  that  doctrine  is  not  stated.  Jesus, 
as  described  in  the  Koran,  is  a semi-angelic  being,  created 

1 Arabic  sura,  a word  of  uncertain  derivation  and  meaning. 

42 


ISLAM  S DOCTRINAL  CONTENT 


immediately  in  the  womb  of  Mary  by  the  direct  action  of 
Allah.  He  is  thus  called  also  a “word”  (kalima)  from 
Allah,  because  he  is  the  result  of  the  creative  word  “be” 
(kun).  He  and  his  mother  are  spoken  of  as  a “sign”  and 
a “mercy”  to  mankind.  He  did  not  die,  but  was  taken  up 
by  Allah  into  one  of  the  heavens,  where  he  still  remains 
in  the  body  in  which  he  was  born,  and  whence  he  will  come 
before  the  last  day  to  bring  in  the  triumph  of  the  true 
religion  and  of  peace  in  the  earth.  It  will  be  well  for  the 
missionary,  then,  to  bring  out  clearly  the  unexplained  ele- 
ments in  the  figure  of  Jesus.  ^ There  are  two  other  points 
of  contact  for  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  person  of 
Christ:  (a)  There  has  grown  up  among  Moslems  a doctrine 
of  the  person  of  Mohammed  which  is  almost  exactly  the 
Arian  doctrine  of  Christ.  It  represents  Mohammed  as  the 
•first  of  all  created  beings,  created  before  the  worlds,  and 
that  for  his  sake  the  worlds  were  created,  (b)  The  rela- 
tionship of  the  quality  of  Allah  called  “speech”  to  the  Koran 
is  almost  exactly  that  of  the  divine  logos  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment to  its  earthly  manifestation  in  Jesus.  Speech  is  the 
quality  of  Allah  existing  from  all  eternity  in  his  essence; 
it  is  not  of  the  nature  of  letters  or  sounds.  By  that  speech 
he  created  the  worlds.  The  Koran  is  an  earthly  manifesta- 
tion of  that  quality  of  speech,  even  though  it  is  written, 
spoken,  heard  and  remembered;  and  because  of  this  rela- 
tionship the  Koran  is  called  “the  speech  of  Allah,”  and  is 
to  be  regarded  as  uncreated  and  eternal.  There  early  grew 
up  in  Islam  a belief  that  before  the  last  day  there  would  be 
a final,  great  conflict  of  good  and  evil.  Then  will  appear 
an  antichrist  and  then  against  him  a great  protagonist  of 
Islam,  who  will  finally  overcome  him,  slay  him  and  reduce 
the  whole  world  to  the  true  faith,  Islam.  This  is  the  doc- 
trine of  the  “guided  One”  (mahdl),  whom  Allah  will  send. 

1 C.  H.  A.  Field  in  the  Moslem  l-Vorld,  i,  68  pp.,  brings  together  passages  in 
Mohammedan  writers  which  refer  to  Jesus  and  which  emphasize  elements  in 
his  teaching  on  which  the  Koran  is  silent. 


43 


PRESENTINC.  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


He  will  not  be  an  independent  prophet,  but  a Moslem,  fol- 
lowing the  law  of  Islam.  Confusion  has  entered  as  to 
whether  he  will  be  the  same  as  Jesus,  whose  return  to  earth 
before  the  last  day  is  also  promised.  When  Jesus  returns, 
he  also  will  come  as  a Moslem  and  no  longer  as  a prophet 
in  his  own  right.  This  subject,  about  which  the  systematic 
theologians  say  very  little,  is  a favorite  one  with  writers  for 
devotion  and  edification. 

(8)  The  Day  of  Judgment. — The  consideration  of  the 
day  of  judgment  plays  an  important  part  for  religious  edifi- 
cation in  the  Moslem  mind.  Islam,  like  a large  section  of  the 
Christian  Church,  teaches  that  there  are  two  judgments, 
the  lesser  at  the  death  of  the  individual,  the  greater  at  the 
resurrection.  The  lesser  judgment  takes  place  after  burial 
in  the  grave  of  the  individual  through  two  angels,  Munkar 
and  Nakir,  who  interrogate  the  deceased  as  to  his  faith- 
and  conduct.  The  grave  in  which  he  continues  to  exist  in 
a sentient  state  becomes  for  him  thereafter  a foretaste  of 
the  Garden  or  of  the  Fire,  hence  the  Moslem  regards  the 
grave  as  inviolate.  This  will  continue  until  the  greater 
judgment  on  the  general  Judgment  Day. 

From  the  Koran  and  from  traditions  many  picturesque 
details  are  derived  regarding  the  events  of  that  Day.  All 
living  beings,  men  and  beasts,  will  be  raised  from  their  dust 
and  will  stand  in  the  presence  of  Allah.  The  beasts  will 
be  there,  in  order  that  they  may  bear  witness  against  the 
men  who  have  used  them  cruelly.  Thereafter  they  will 
return  to  dust,  except  a few  who,  because  of  association 
with  prophets,  will  enter  paradise.  Mankind  will  be  kept 
standing  before  Allah,  until  in  utter  weariness  they  will 
appeal  to  the  prophets  to  intercede  with  Allah  that  this 
standing  (mawqif)  may  cease.  Eventually  Mohammed 
will  intercede  and  the  business  of  the  Day  will  then  pro- 
ceed. Actions,  good  and  bad,  will  be  weighed  against  one 
another  in  a balance.  The  books  in  which  human  deeds 


44 


Islam’s  religious  practices 


have  been  entered  will  be  opened.  Allah  may  exact  the 
uttermost  penalty  or  may  freely  forgive.  For  the  relative 
value  of  faith  and  works  on  that  Day,  see  below.  When 
believers  have  all  been  gathered  into  the  Garden  and  unbe- 
lievers into  the  Fire,  they  will  abide  there  forever.  It 
should  be  said,  however,  that  while  Islam  undoubtedly  pic- 
tures to  itself  the  Garden  and  the  Fire  in  sensuous  and  also 
in  sensual  terms,  it  declares  that  the  highest  beatitude  at- 
tainable by  the  believer  will  be  the  vision  of  the  face  of 
Allah. 


V.  The  Religious  Practices  of  Islam 

The  four  sources  referred  to  on  page  27  are  the  founda- 
tions of  both  systematic  theology  and  canon  law.  Theology 
deals  with  what  man  must  believe;  canon  law  with  what 
man  must  do.  But  the  scope  of  canon  law  in  Islam  is 
much  wider  than  that  of  any  legal  system  with  us.  It 
covers  private  as  well  as  public  conduct,  and  it  does  not 
classify  actions  simply  as  commanded  and  prohibited,  but 
into  those  which  are  commanded,  recommended,  indifferent, 
disliked  and  forbidden.  It  is  for  the  individual  Moslem, 
when  in  doubt,  to  apply  to  a canonist,  who  will  then  give 
him  a legal  opinion  (fetwa).  The  canonist  is  then  the  mufti. 
In  the  same  way  the  judge,  or  cadi  (qddi),  before  whom 
a case  comes  in  court,  should  apply  to  a mufti  for  a legal 
opinion  on  it.  Any  person  of  learning  can  give  a legal 
opinion,  but  its  value  will  depend  on  his  reputation.  Sal- 
aried muftis  are  often  attached  by  the  government  to  law 
courts. 

The  religious  practices  of  Islam  are  called  ‘ibadat.  That 
means  that  they  are  regarded  as  the  actions  of  a slave 
{'abd)  towards  his  owner,  Allah,  who  in  this  connection 
is  called  his  Lord  (rabb).  They  are  called  also  his  works 


45 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


{‘amal),  and  will  form  a part  of  his  reckoning  at  the  Last 
Day.  These  practices  are  all  individual  duties  {fard  ‘ain) 
incumbent  upon  every  Moslem  personally,  and  are; 

(1)  Faith  (iman)  and  Its  Public  Confession  {iqrdr). — 
This  public  confession  consists  of  what  are  called  the  two 
words  of  witnessing  (kalimata-sh-shahada) : “I  bear  wit- 
ness that  there  is  no  god  except  Allah  and  that  Mohammed 
is  the  messenger  of  Allah.”  The  first  of  those  meant  to  the 
Meccans,  to  whom  it  was  originally  delivered,  that  of  the 
members  of  their  pantheon  the  one  whom  they  called  Allah 
was  the  only  real  God.  For  later  Islam  it  has  become  the 
foundation  of  practically  all  their  theology  and  is  consid- 
ered as  stating  the  absolute  unity,  both  external  and  in- 
ternal, of  Allah.  The  external  unity  is  the  non-existence  of 
any  other  being  like  Allah,  and  the  internal  that  he  in  him- 
self is  a unity.  From  this  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  person 
of  Allah  is  developed  and  it  forms  nine-tenths  of  the  theol- 
ogy of  Islam.  The  second  word  of  witnessing  means  that 
Mohammed  was  and  is  the  messenger  of  Allah  to  mankind, 
bearing  the  message  which  is  Islam.  The  utterer  of  these 
words  becomes  a Muslim,  and  it  is  a pious  act  to  repeat  them 
frequently.  “On  every  occasion  this  creed  is  repeated  by 
the  believer.  It  is  the  key  to  every  door  of  difficulty.  It  is 
the  watchword  of  Islam.  These  words  Mohammedans  in- 
scribe on  their  banners  and  on  their  doorposts.  They  ap- 
pear on* all  the  early  coins  of  the  caliphs.  This  creed  of 
seven  Arabic  words  rings  out  in  every  Moslem  village  from 
the  Philippines  to  Morocco.  One  hears  it  in  the  bazaar  and 
the  street  and  the  mosque;  it  is  a battle-cry  and  a cradle- 
song, an  exclamation  of  delight  and  a funeral  dirge.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  this  continual,  public  repetition  of  a creed 
has  been  a source  of  strength  to  Islam  for  ages,  as  well  as 
a stimulus  to  fanaticism.”  ^ 

(2)  Worship. — It  is  the  duty  of  every  Moslem  to  pre- 

1 Zwemer,  “Islam,”  p.  102. 


46 


Islam’s  religious  practices 


sent  himself  in  worship  before  Allah  five  times  in  the  twen- 
ty-four hours.  The  act  is  closely  analogous  to  the  paying 
of  respects  on  the  part  of  an  inferior  to  a superior.  Each 
act  of  worship  (salat)  consists  of  certain  bowings  and  pros- 
trations combined  in  a fixed  order  with  the  repetition  of 
certain  phrases  of  worship  and  reverence.  The  details  of 
this  worship  are  very  closely  prescribed  and  the  following 
of  it  is  regarded  as  a kind  of  regimen  or  medicine  for  the 
soul.  Theologians  have  abandoned  the  attempt  to  explain 
why  the  details  should  be  so  and  not  otherwise,  and  ex- 
plain them  as  being  analogous  to  the  prescription  of  a 
physician,  which  the  patient  should  follow,  even  though 
he  does  not  know  how  it  works.  After  each  act  of  worship 
and  also  at  any  time  besides,  the  Moslem  may  offer  up 
specific  prayer  in  the  sense  of  petition  (du‘a)  to  Allah.  In 
such  ways  he  presents  his  needs  and  desires  before  his 
Lord.  There  are,  besides,  many  other  forms  of  devotional 
utterance  in  use  among  Moslems — ejaculatory  prayers, 
pious  formulae,  statements  of  faith  and  submission,  which 
are  used  by  the  religious-minded  all  the  time.  Dervishes 
especially,  both  full  members  and  lay  members  (tertiaries), 
have  a certain  ‘‘office,”  or  liturgical  service,  which  they  are 
supposed  to  say  daily,  and  they  have  also  a weekly  service 
in  which  they  are  expected  to  take  part  in  common  with 
their  brethren  at  the  monastery  of  their  fraternity.  But 
of  all  these,  only  the  salat  is  absolutely  prescribed.  To  omit 
it  is  sin;  to  perform  it  goes  into  the  reckoning  of  good 
works.  It  must  be  preceded  by  certain  acts  of  purification 
(wudu’’  and  ghusl),  varying  according  to  circumstances, 
and  by  a statement  of  intention  (nlya),  and  must  be  di- 
rected toward  the  Kaaba  (Ka‘ba)  at  Mecca,  called  in  this 
connection  the  qibla.  The  act  of  worship  toward  the  qibla 
is  regarded  as  the  distinction  between  the  Moslem  and  the 
non-Moslem.  And  this  has  even  reached  the  formulation 
that  any  one  who  worships  toward  that  qibla  must  be  ac- 

47 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


cepted  as  a Moslem  and  not  further  questioned  as  to  his 
faith.  The  spirituality  involved  and  expressed  in  the  forms 
of  the  salat  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the  state  of  mind 
and  heart  of  the  worshipper.  It  is  possible  to  go  through 
it  as  a purely  mechanical  exercise,  and  Islam  would  ascribe 
merit  to  such  performance  of  this  duty.  It  is  also  possible, 
and  without  doubt  often  occurs,  that  the  performance  of 
this  duty  has  spiritual  meaning  and  value  as  a real  inter- 
course between  the  soul  and  God. 

(3)  Fasting  {sawm  or  sly  am). — During  the  month  of 
Ramadan,  which  may  fall  at  any  time  in  the  solar  year, 
since  the  Moslem  year  is  lunar,  the  believer  must  fast,  in 
the  most  complete  sense,  going  without  food  or  drink  from 
dawn  to  sunset,  every  day,  unless  he  is  hindered  by  his 
situation,  e.g.,  being  on  a journey  or  at  war,  or  suffering 
from  bodily  infirmities.  Such  omitted  fasting  must  be 
made  up,  according  to  certain  rules,  at  other  times.  It  may 
be  fair  to  add  that  feasting  is  equally  permitted  from  each 
sunset  to  dawn. 

(4)  Tithing  and  Almsgiving. — Two  words  are  used  in 
the  Koran  for  the  giving  of  alms,  zakat  and  sadaqa.  The 
canon  law  of  Islam  has  distinguished  between  them.  Zakdt 
has  become  a formal  tithe  imposed  upon  certain  possessions 
in  certain  fixed  proportions  and  devoted  to  certain  pre- 
scribed purposes.  These  purposes  are  all  exactly  laid  down 
by  the  different  schools  of  canon  law.  Few  Moslem  states, 
however,  except  perhaps  the  Wahhabis  in  Arabia,  insist 
upon  the  payment  of  the  tithe.  Sadaqa,  on  the  other  hand, 
has  come  to  mean  benevolences,  and  is  applied  to  almsgiv- 
ing, both  on  certain  occasions  and  in  general,  varying  with 
the  will  of  the  giver.  The  example  and  precept  of  Moham- 
med have  made  the  giving  of  alms  assume  an  important 
place  in  a Moslem’s  religious  life.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
atoning  value  for  evil  deeds.  Organized  charities  and  en- 
dowments have  also  from  time  to  time  been  common  in 


48 


ISLAM  S RELIGIOUS  PRACTICES 


Islam,  funds  having  been  left  in  mortmain  (waqf)  for  the 
purpose. 

(5)  Pilgrimage. — As  a religious  practice,  the  pilgrimage 
(hajj)  to  Mecca  is  regarded  by  Moslems  as  entitling  the 
pilgrim  to  the  highest  consideration  here  on  earth  and  the 
greatest  favor  in  the  life  to  come.  Moreover,  as  a practical 
bond  of  union  between  Mohammedans  of  all  races  and  as 
an  expression  of  the  solidarity  of  Islam,  this  pilgrimage 
undoubtedly  has  the  greatest  possible  value.  To  gain  a clear 
picture  of  the  experience  involved  in  a pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 
one  must  read  such  an  account  of  the  actual  journey  as 
Burckhardt,  Burton  and  others  have  written.  The  kissing 
of  the  Black  Stone  which  is  so  much  revered,  and  which  is 
set  in  the  wall  of  the  Kaaba  at  Mecca,  and  several  other 
elements  of  the  pilgrimage  ritual  are  undoubtedly  relics  of 
the  days  which  preceded  the  rise  of  Islam.  In  case  of  need 
the  pilgrimage  may  be  performed  by  a substitute  whose  ex- 
penses will  be  covered  by  the  party  desiring  to  gain  such 
merit.  To  be  a hajjl  one  must  not  only  make  the  journey 
to  Mecca,  but  must  also  do  it  at  the  right  time  in  the  month 
of  pilgrimage  (Dhu-l-hijja) , and  especially  must  be  present 
at  the  solemn  sermon  on  Arafat. 

(6)  Jihad. — The  above  practices  are  individual  duties  re- 
quired of  all  Moslems.  Jihad,  or  fighting  for  the  spread  of 
Islam,  is  called  technically  a “duty  of  sufficiency” 
kifdya),  i.e.,  when  it  is  performed  by  a number  of  Mos- 
lems sufficient  for  the  purpose  the  obligation  falls  away 
from  the  rest.  It  is,  of  course,  conceivable  that  it  might 
become  an  individual  duty  {fard  ‘ain),  which  would  mean 
that  the  whole  Moslem  world  has  been  drawn  into  the  con- 
flict. It  is  of  the  essential  theory  of  Islam  that  Moslem 
and  non-Moslem  states  must  be  at  war,  until  the  whole 
world  is  subdued  to  Islam.  The  fixed  status  of  a non- 
Moslem  state  is  therefore  that  of  an  enemy.  It  is  allowable 
for  the  people  of  Islam  to  form  temporary  treaty  relations. 


49 


rRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


but  these  can  only  be  temporary,  and  in  the  early  days  of 
Islam  it  was  considered  the  duty  of  the  head  of  the  Moslem 
state  to  lead  an  expedition  at  least  once  a year  against 
his  non-Moslem  neighbors.  This  gradually  became  atro- 
phied into  the  annual  equipping  of  such  an  expedition.  It 
will,  therefore,  be  seen  that  jihad  is,  in  strict  canon  law, 
the  natural  relationship  between  Moslems  and  non-Mos- 
lems, and  with  this  agrees  undoubtedly  the  deep  feeling 
of  the  Moslem  masses.  Every  war,  then,  by  a Moslem 
against  a non-Moslem  power  is  ipso  facto  a jihad,  and 
needs  no  proclamation  to  make  it  so.  The  proclamation  in 
1914  of  a jihad  by  Turkey  was  really  a statement  by  the 
sultan-caliph  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  that  he  stood  in  dire 
need,  and  a summons  of  all  Moslems  to  his  standard.  The 
duty  of  sufficiency  had  become  an  individual  duty,  he  de- 
clared. Its  lack  of  success  shows  the  growing  weakness  of 
the  purely  religious  appeal  in  Islam,  and  that  the  principle 
of  nationality  is  gaining  strength. 

VI.  The  Legal  and  Theological  Development 

OF  Islam 

(1)  The  Development  of  Canon  Law. — In  every  Sunnite 
Moslem  country  except  that  of  the  Wahhabites  there  exist 
at  the  present  time,  and  have  existed  almost  since  the  be- 
ginning, two  separate  systems  of  law.  The  one  is  a system 
of  canon  law  based  on  religious  sanctions,  and  supposed  to 
cover  the  whole  life  of  an  individual,  private  and  public.  It 
may  be  called  a system  of  duties.  The  other  is  a secular 
system  of  law  arising  out  of  the  necessities  of  the  case,  the 
pre-Islamic  customs  of  the  separate  countries  and  the  will 
of  their  rulers.  It  is  law  in  our  sense,  which  forbids  under 
penalty  of  punishment.  In  the  beginning  Mohammed  had 
acted  as  judge  in  his  community.  His  immediate  successors 
tried  to  follow  the  same  system  and  to  judge  as  he  had 


50 


Islam’s  legal  development 


done,  but  they  could  not  fall  back  upon  divine  guidance. 
They  had,  therefore,  to  systematize  the  record  of  his  de- 
cisions and  to  construct  by  that  means  a body  of  law. 
They  took  as  a basis  for  this  the  laws  contained  in  the 
Koran  and  in  the  prophet’s  own  recorded  decisions.  The 
resultant  body  of  law  was  strictly  a system  of  canon  law, 
for  it  covered  all  the  sides  and  aspects  of  life,  developing 
in  minute  detail  what  a Moslem  should  do,  think,  and  say 
in  all  situations.  Further,  it  analyzed  all  actions  under 
five  categories:  the  absolutely  forbidden  (haram),  the  abso- 
lutely required  {fard,  wdjib),  the  merely  disliked  {makruh), 
the  merely  preferred  {mandub,  mustahabb)  and  the  indif- 
ferent {jafiz,  mubdh)d  In  the  development  of  this  system 
it  was  to  be  expected  that  different  schools  would  arise,  for 
different  canonists  would  naturally  incline  to  lay  stress 
on  different  basal  ideas  and  to  follow  different  methods. 
The  result  has  been  four  schools  of  canon  law:  the  Hana- 
fites  (al-hanaflya) , the  Malikites  (al-mdlikiya) , the  Shafiites 
(ash-shdfi'lya)  and  the  Hanbalites  (al-hanbaliya) , after  the 
names  of  their  founders  and  in  the  order  mentioned.  Abu 
Hanifa,  the  founder  of  the  first,  died  in  A.H.  150  (767 
A.D.).  The  characteristics  of  his  system  are  that  he  ad- 
mitted comparatively  few  traditions  and  preferred  to  build 
up  by  the  aid  of  analogy  and  reason  what  may  be  called  a 
speculative  system  of  law.  In  consequence  the  Hanafite 
code  has  the  reputation  of  being  more  liberal  than  the  others 
and  of  adjusting  itself  better  to  individual  and  local  re- 
quirements. Central  Asia,  northern  India  and  the  Turks 
everywhere  are  Hanafites.  The  founder  of  the  second 
school  was  Malik  ibn  Anas,  who  died  A.H.  179  (795  A.D.). 
He  was  a working  jurist,  resident  at  the  city  of  the  prophet 
(al-Madina),  and  therefore  in  immediate  touch  with  the 
local  traditions  of  the  prophetic  decisions.  But  he  also  had 
behind  him  the  customary  law  of  Medina,  and  he  felt  him- 


^ Slight  differences  as  to  this  classification  have  arisen  between  the  different 
schools. 


51 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


self  free  to  use  it  just  as  the  prophet  himself  had  done. 
Further,  from  his  position  as  a judge  sitting  more  or  less 
in  the  seat  of  the  prophet  himself,  he  did  not  feel  himself 
bound  to  follow  the  exact  letter  of  the  law  as  it  had  reached 
him,  but  also  made  free  use  of  analogy,  though  hardly  in 
so  speculative  a way  as  had  Abu  Hanifa,  who  was  not  in 
touch  with  actual  judicial  situations,  but  was  simply  build- 
ing up  a hypothetical  system.  The  Malikite  school  is  largely 
followed  through  northern  Africa.  The  founder  of  the 
third  school  was  ash-Shdfit,  who  died  A.H.  207  (A.D. 
819).  It  is  to  him  that  Islam  owes  the  clear  fixing  and 
defining  of  the  four  sources  already  mentioned  on  page  27 : 
Koran,  tradition  or  usage  of  the  prophet  {sunna,  expressed 
in  traditions  ahadlth),  analogy  (qiyds),  and  agreement 
(ijmd‘),  and  he  especially  worked  out  and  gave  its  impor- 
tance to  the  principle  of  the  agreement  of  the  Moslem 
people.  As  distinguished  from  Abu  Hanifa  he  gave  great 
weight  to  traditions  and  as  distinguished  from  Malik  ibn 
Anas  he  defined  and  classified  the  province  of  reason.  Lower 
Egypt,  Syria,  southern  India  and  the  Malay  Archipelago  are 
mostly  Shafiite.  The  fourth  school,  the  Hanbalite,  bears  the 
name  of  Ahmad  ibn  Hanbal,  who  died  A.H.  241  (855  A.D.). 
He  lived  and  died  as  a Shafiite  with  no  thought  of  founding 
a rival  school,  but  his  followers  saw  his  position  more  clearly 
than  he  himself  had  done,  and  the  fourth,  a purely  tradi- 
tional school,  came  into  existence.  It  minimizes  reason 
and  endeavors  to  find  a basis  in  Koran  or  tradition  for 
every  decision.  There  have  been  also  other  attempts  at 
schools.  Thus  there  was  one  which  existed  for  a time  called 
the  Zahirite.  The  word  means  “literalist,”  and  the  charac- 
teristic of  the  school  was  an  insistence  upon  taking  the 
words  of  the  Koran  and  of  traditions  in  their  absolutely 
literal  sense,  rejecting  any  consideration  of  circumstances 
or  analogy.  This  school  had  long  consequences  and  the 
principle  which  it  advocated  kept  reappearing  in  the  devel- 


52 


Islam’s  legal  development 


opment  of  Moslem  thought,  but  it  never  held  acknowledged 
rank  beside  the  other  four.  At  me  present  time  the  Han- 
balites  are  to  be  found  practically  only  among  the  Wah- 
habites  in  Arabia.  The  four  schools,  however,  are  all 
equally  orthodox,  and  their  divergencies  are  regarded  as  a 
merciful  provision  of  Allah  to  meet  human  weakness.  But 
while  a Moslem  has  a right  to  follow  the  ruling  of  any 
school  without  fear  of  being  accused  of  heresy,  yet  he 
usually  adheres  consistently  to  one  only,  the  choice  of  which 
is  dictated  by  environment  and  geographical  situation. 
Nevertheless,  some  eminent  scholars  have  maintained  an 
eclectic  position. 

These,  then,  are  the  ideal  codes  whose  bases  and  sanctions 
are  religious.  Except  for  a short  period,  however,  at  the 
beginning  of  Islam,  they  have  never  absolutely  ruled,  and 
they  were  very  largely  the  product  of  legal  ingenuity  work- 
ing under  unusual  conditions,  and  were  developed  apart 
from  contact  with  the  facts  of  life  and  with  the  law  courts. 
Inasmuch  as  the  actual  facts  of  life  and  the  desires  and 
will  of  rulers  clashed  violently  with  such  ecclesiastical  sys- 
tems, these  codes  came  soon  to  apply  only  to  personal  mat- 
ters and  to  family  law,  having  regard  to  marriage,  divorce 
or  inheritance.  All  other  judicial  questions  came  to  be  de- 
cided on  other  bases.  In  consequence,  every  Moslem  coun- 
try has  two  sets  of  law  codes,  the  religious  and  the  secular. 
The  canon  lawyers  have  always  regarded  this  situation  as 
the  outcome  of  flat  usurpation  by  the  government,  and  the 
pious  have  always  agreed  with  them.  But  the  governments, 
unless  moved  by  fear  of  popular  insurrection,  have  gone 
their  own  way,  and  Islam  now  can  only  look  to  the  reign 
of  the  Mahdi,  and  does  so  look,  for  the  reintroduction  to 
full  validity  of  its  system  of  canon  law.  In  Turkey,  it  may 
be  added,  the  system  of  secular  law  is  based  on  the  Code 
Napoleon,  and  is  called  the  Qawanln,  while  the  canon  law 
is  the  sharfa,  or  shar‘. 


53 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


(2)  The  Theological  Development  of  Islam. — Three  prin- 
cipal factors  have  helped  to  develop  and  to  organize  Moslem 
religious  thinking:  tradition  (naql),  reason  {'aql),  and  the 
inner  vision  of  the  mystic  {kashf,  ilham).  Tradition  means 
the  Koran,  the  book  of  Allah,  and  the  records  of  Moham- 
med’s sayings  and  doings.  Reason  manifested  itself  at  first 
as  the  frank  personal  opinion  {roly)  of  those  close  to  Mo- 
hammed regarding  his  probable  teachings.  It  narrowed 
down  thereafter  in  law  into  analogy  (qiyds),  and  still  later, 
with  the  spread  of  philosophical  thought,  it  utilized  the 
speculative  reason  {‘aql,  nazar),  understood  in  the  broadest 
sense.  The  open  vision  of  the  mystic  has  always  existed 
in  Islam.  Mohammed  himself  was  a mystic  and  for  him 
the  prophetic  power  was  only  a development  and  a giving 
of  official  status,  as  a message  from  Allah  to  mankind,  to 
a power  common  to  the  human  soul.  But,  while  all  these 
three  were  essentially  present  in  Islam  from  the  beginning, 
the  formal  statement  of  each  in  the  development  of  Moslem 
thought  was  reached  separately  and  later.  Thus  the  first 
Moslems  took  the  Koran  and  tradition  and  questioned  them 
little.  They  were  too  much  busied  with  the  spread  of  the 
empire  and  of  their  faith  to  become  self-conscious  and  to 
examine  into  the  exact  character  of  that  faith.  But  the 
time  soon  came  when  questions  arose  and  reason  was 
brought  into  play  with  results  that  may  be  broadly  classified 
as  follows: 

(a)  Free  Will  and  Predestination. — The  statements  in 
the  Koran  regarding  this  paradox  of  the  ages  are  quite 
contradictory.  Mohammed  himself  was  an  opportunist 
preacher.  In  consequence  radically  different  positions  can 
be  based  upon  statements  in  the  Koran.  Sects  arose  in 
Islam,  some  strongly  declaring  the  unlimited  will  and  power 
of  Allah,  others  asserting  his  justice  and  the  freedom  of 
man.  Still  others  interpreted  the  paradox  psychologically 
rather  than  ethically.  Allah,  they  agreed,  could  do  what  he 

54 


Islam’s  legal  development 


pleased  for  his  creatures,  but  how  did  man  come  to  feel 
that  he  was  free?  The  final  outcome  were  four  sects,  two 
orthodox  and  two  heretical.  One  was  an  extreme  predes- 
tinarian  sect,  called  the  Jabrites,  which  taught  that  Allah 
absolutely  constrained  (jabr)  man  in  his  actions,  i.e.,  that 
man  is  really  an  automaton.  Another  sect,  equally  extreme, 
called  the  Qadarites,  taught  that  man  possesses  power 
(qudra)  over  his  own  actions,  even  going  so  far  as  to  say 
that  he  creates  his  actions.  A third  more  generally  recog- 
nized sect,  the  Asharites  (al-ash'arlya),  taught  that  Allah 
created  the  action  and  the  will  to  perform  the  action,  and 
also  a certain  “accepting”  (iktisdb)  of  the  action  on  the  part 
of  every  man;  while  a fourth  orthodox  sect,  the  Maturi- 
dites  {al~mdturldlya) , accepted  the  facts  of  experience  at 
their  face  value,  stating  that  while  Allah  is  the  creator  of 
all  actions,  yet  man  possesses  the  exercise  of  free  will  for 
which  he  is  rightfully  rewarded  and  punished. 

The  teaching  of  the  Jabrites  may  be  characterized  as  a 
crude  attempt  to  uphold  the  absoluteness  of  Allah’s  will  and 
power;  the  Qadarites  endeavored  to  give  due  weight  to  the 
ethical  aspect  of  God’s  actions  and  to  the  facts  of  man’s 
consciousness;  the  Asharites  seemed  to  attempt  to  explain 
the  origin  of  man’s  belief  that  he  is  free,  while  Allah,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  is  the  creator  of  everything;  and  the  Ma- 
turidites  made  a common  sense  acceptance  of  the  facts  of 
consciousness,  merely  stating  the  inevitable  contradiction 
and  leaving  it  there.  The  Qadarites  eventually  developed 
into  the  Mu'tazilites,  who  were  the  rationalists  of  Islam, 
and  came  to  be  the  heirs  of  all  the  heresies  that  Islam 
produced. 

(b)  Allah  and  His  Qualities. — The  problem  of  the  per- 
son of  God  ^ arose  very  early  in  the  religious  thinking  of 
Islam,  and,  probably  under  the  influence  of  theologians  of 
the  Greek  church,  was  handled  in  scholastic  fashion.  Allah, 

1 See  this  same  problem  from  a different  point  of  view  on  pp.  38,  39. 

55 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


it  was  agreed,  possesses  an  essence  (dhat)  and  qualities 
(sifdt).  The  essence  is  unchanging.  The  qualities  are  such 
as  knowledge,  power,  will,  sight,  hearing,  speech,  etc.,  and 
were  determined  in  the  first  instance  by  the  descriptives 
applied  to  Allah  in  the  Koran.  They  were  thus,  for  the  mind 
of  Mohammed,  anthropomorphic,  but  in  the  development  of 
Islam  they  lost  this  descriptive  value  in  proportion  as  the 
doctrine  of  Allah’s  “difference”  (mukhdlafa)  developed. 
“Difference”  means  that  no  parallelism  or  likeness  can  exist 
at  any  point  between  Allah  and  His  creatures.  A full  ap- 
preciation of  this  by  the  missionary  is  essential,  since  it  preju- 
dices the  Moslem  against  the  acceptance  of  any  doctrine 
which  tends  to  bring  God  and  man  together,  such  as  that  of 
the  fatherhood  of  God.  The  speculative  puzzle  concerned 
the  relation  of  these  qualities  to  the  essence.  Were  they 
the  essence  of  Allah,  then  that  essence  must  be  a com- 
pound and  not  a unit.  Were  they  something  else  than  the 
essence  of  Allah,  then  they  must  be  attached  externally  to 
that  essence  and  be  separable  in  thought  from  it,  that  is, 
there  would  be  a multiplicity  of  Allahs  instead  of  one. 
This  sort  of  reasoning  developed  an  enormously  multiplied 
Trinitarian  type  of  controversy.  Heterodox  Islam  tended 
to  solve  the  problem  raised  by  reducing  Allah  to  a vague, 
indescribable,  indeterminable  unity.  Orthodox  Islam  in- 
vented the  formula,  “They  are  not  He,  nor  are  they  other 
than  He,”  i.e.,  the  person  of  Allah  is  a theological  mystery. 

The  various  qualities  ascribed  to  Allah  in  Mohammedan 
theology  were  suggested  in  the  first  instance  by  Koranic 
texts,  but  historically  the  tendency  has  developed  to  prove 
their  existence  on  a basis  of  pure  reason,  starting  with  the 
fundamental  premise  of  the  need  of  the  world  for  a creator, 
and  then  working  out  what  that  creator  must  necessarily 
be.  Moslems  always  draw  a very  clear  line  between  what 
can  be  and  must  be  reached  by  reason,  and  what  man  can 
only  learn  through  revelation.  Naturally,  different  schools 

56 


Islam’s  legal  development 


have  reached  different  conclusions  as  to  the  amount  of 
theological  truth  which  Allah  could  require  man  to  attain 
by  his  unaided  reason. 

(c)  The  Doctrine  of  the  Koran. — There  arose  very  early 
in  Islam  a confusion  regarding  the  meaning  of  the  expres- 
sion “the  word  of  Allah”  {kaldm  Allah).  Speech  was  one 
of  the  eternal  qualities  posited  as  belonging  to  Allah,  for 
in  the  Koran  he  is  represented  as  speaking;  but  the  Koran, 
too,  was  called  the  Word  of  Allah.  Did  that  mean  that  the 
Koran  itself  was  eternal  and  uncreated?  The  early  discus- 
sions of  this  question  were  quite  certainly  affected  by  the 
Christian  doctrine  of  the  uncreated  Word  (logos).  The 
Koran  was  declared  to  be  the  visible  expression  and  em- 
bodiment of  the  eternal  Word,  just  as  Jesus  was  declared 
to  be  the  earthly  manifestation  of  the  logos.  However  the 
idea  developed,  orthodox  Islam  soon  came  to  teach  definitely 
that  the  Koran  in  essence  was  uncreated,  whatever  was  to 
be  said  of  its  written,  spoken,  remembered  or  heard  forms. 
Some  early  enthusiasts  for  the  idea  even  asserted  that  these 
forms  were  uncreated,  but  orthodox  Islam  has  passed  from 
a dislike  to  discuss  the  question  to  a recognition  of  a dif- 
ference between  the  essential  Koran  and  its  visible  embodi- 
ment. While,  then,  orthodox  Islam  firmly  holds  to  the 
eternity  of  the  Koran,  a Moslem  is  allowed  to  explain  it 
in  more  than  one  form. 

(d)  Anthropomorphisms. — The  Koran,  like  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, is  full  of  anthropomorphisms.  Mohammed  thought 
in  concrete  terms  and  his  descriptions  of  Allah  have  in  con- 
sequence given  great  trouble  to  the  Moslem  scholastics. 
Many  felt  compelled  to  take  them  literally  and  to  assert 
that  these  held  of  Allah  in  just  the  same  way  as  they  would 
hold  of  man.  So  one  theologian,  when  he  came  to  one  of 
the  seven  passages  in  the  Koran  which  describe  how  Allah 
settled  himself  on  his  throne,  would  arise  from  his  seat,  sit 
down  again  and  say,  “He  did  it  just  as  I am  doing  it  now.” 

57 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO 'MOSLEMS 

Such  theologians  were  of  the  Zahirite  school,  already  men- 
tioned under  canon  law  (page  52).  Others  tried  to  find 
lexicographical  methods  of  escape.  The  word  “hand”  in 
Arabic  also  means  “strength.”  They  claimed  that  the 
prophet  had  the  abstract  rather  than  the  concrete  meaning 
in  mind.  But  gradually  there  grew  up  the  doctrine  of  Allah’s 
“difference”  {mukhdlafa)  referred  to  above.  This,  when 
pushed  to  the  extreme,  of  course  means  that  Allah  is  un- 
knowable to  man,  and  there  is  a tendency  among  theologians 
to  state  it  in  such  a form.  But  more  moderately  used  it 
merely  guards  against  thinking  of  Allah  in  human  terms. 
At  an  early  date  this  conclusion  was  voiced  in  the  dictum 
that  we  must  believe  those  Koranic  descriptions  of  Allah 
“without  inquiring  how  and  without  making  comparisons” 
(bild  kayfa  wald  tashblh). 

(e)  The  Vision  of  Allah. — It  is  taught  in  traditions  that 
the  high,est  felicity  for  the  believer  in  Paradise  will  be 
seeing  the  face  of  Allah.  The  scholastic  objection  was  early 
raised  that  this  could  only  mean  that  Allah  exists  in  space. 
Orthodox  Islam  today  asserts  the  truth  of  the  vision,  but 
states  that  it  will  not  be  in  terms  of  our  human  seeing — a 
matter  of  space  and  direction  and  rays  of  light. 

For  a long  time  after  Mohammed’s  day  orthodox,  tradi- 
tional believers  contented  themselves  with  simply  affirming 
the  essentials  of  the  true  faith,  ignoring  all  these  heresies, 
and  refusing  to  permit  reason  to  have  anything  to  do  with 
their  religious  thinking.  Such  an  attitude  could  not  con- 
tinue, and  the  year  300  A.H.  (912-13  A.D.)  saw  what  is 
called  the  return  of  al-AsVarl  from  the  Mutazilite  or 
rationalistic  party  to  the  orthodox  fold.  He  brought  back 
with  him  the  Mutazilite  principles  and  methods  of  discus- 
sion, so  that,  under  his  leadership,  they  were  henceforth 
used  in  the  building  up  of  a scholastic  orthodox  religious 
system.  Of  course,  many  theologians,  Hanbalites  and 
Zahirites,  for  the  most  part,  continued  to  protest  against 

58 


Islam’s  legal  development 


this  imitation  of  unbelievers,  but  the  process  went  on  until 
religion  had  been  thoroughly  organized  into  theology.  The 
natural  consequences  followed.  The  religious  life  decayed; 
unbelief  of  many  kinds  appeared  and  antinomian  attitudes 
became  prevalent.  Law  and  theology  were  secularized. 
It  seemed  to  many  that  the  faith  of  Mohammed  was  grad- 
ually dying  out  and  that  in  its  place  arid  scholastic  sys- 
tems were  growing  up.  It  was  then  that  the  mystical 
tendency  in  human  worship  asserted  itself  and  came  to  be 
accepted  as  a recognized  element  in  Islam.  It  had  always 
j been  in  Islam,  both  in  its  ascetic  and  in  its  speculative 
forms.  It  had  formed  the  real  religious  life  of  the  Moslem 
peoples,  though  often  persecuted  as  heresy  or  even  as  un- 
belief. But  it  had  not  yet  found  definite  public  recognition. 
Hence,  just  as  it  had  been  the  work  of  al-Ash‘ari  to  justify 
the  use  of  the  reasoning  faculty  in  religion,  so  it  became 
' the  work  of  al-Ghazzali  (d.  A.H.  505,  A.D.  1111)  to  give 
validity  and  position  to  the  vision  of  the  mystic.  In  his 
own  personal  experience  he  had  passed  through  a period  of 
the  most  absolute  skepticism.  He  could  for  a time  find  no 
basis  for  the  traditional  faith  which  he  had  been  taught. 
He  had  even  come  to  doubt  the  validity  of  the  ordinary 
operations  of  his  own  mind.  When,  at  length,  he  passed 
through  a religious  crisis  which  drove  him  away  from  his 
position  as  a professor  of  canon  law  to  wander  as  a der- 
vish, he  then  in  his  personal  religious  experiences  found 
something  which  he  could  trust  and  was  led  back  by  these 
to  traditional  Islam.  After  his  day  the  accepted  statement 
concerning  the,  relationship  of  the  three  factors — tradition, 
' reason  and  the  inner  light — to  the  support  of  religion  among 
I thinking  men  in  Islam  came  to  be  substantially  as  follows: 
only  through  that  individual  enlightenment  and  teaching 
which  God  gives  to  the  human  soul  can  a man  come  to 
learn  that  the  Islam  taught  by  his  fathers  is  really  true. 
The  inner  light  thus  vouches  for  tradition.  The  principal 

59 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


use,  then,  for  reason  is  as  a weapon  of  defense  against  the 
unbeliever.  It  can  destroy;  it  cannot  construct.  To  the  end 
al-Ghazzali  was  intellectually  a skeptic.  Though  he  con- 
structed and  stated  intellectualist  proofs  of  theological  dog- 
mas, he  did  not  regard  them  as  valid.  This  attitude  is 
today  that  of  the  religiously-minded;  with  it  should  be 
contrasted  the  scholastic,  theological  attitude  given  above 
which  seeks  to  prove  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  God 
by  reason. 


VII.  Other  Religious  Organizations  and  Movements 

IN  Islam 

(I)  The  Shiites. — The  above  gives  the  development  of 
religion  and  theology  in  Sunnite  Islam — the  main  stem. 
The  Shiites  were  in  the  first  instance  a political  sect.  The 
reason  for  their  existence  is  the  claim  of  the  descendants 
of  Ali  and  Fatima  that  they  by  blood  and  by  the  choice  of 
Allah  have  a right  to  the  headship  of  the  Moslem  State. 
But  this  of  necessity  led  to  theological  developments.  The 
belief  grew  up  that  in  the  house  of  Ali  there  inheres  some 
particle  of  divinity  and  that  this  divine  particle  can  be 
passed  down  from  generation  to  generation.^  Hence,  the 
religious  head  (imam)  of  the  Shiites  could  almost  be  wor- 
shiped, and  was  certainly  an  infallible  source  of  doctrine 
when  he  was  among  men.  After  he  had  vanished  the 
learned  men  (mujtahid)  of  the  Shiites  have  become  the 
exponents  of  his  will.  But  very  curiously  Shiite  theology  is 
strongly  Mutazilite.  How  this  came  about  is  still  histor- 
ically obscure,  but  there  is  no  question  of  the  fact.  For 
the  missionary,  therefore,  amongst  Shiites  in  Persia,  where 
most  of  them  are  to  be  found,  or  in  India,  a study  of  the 

See  further  details  on  p.  66. 

60 


RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENTS  IN  ISLAM 


Mutazilite  development  is  necessary  and  a comparison  of  it 
with  Shiite  textbooks  of  theology  and  law.  On  this  side 
very  much  remains  to  be  done.^ 

In  canon  law,  also,  the  Shiites  have  separate  systems  and 
collections  of  traditions.  The  historicity  of  their  traditions 
and,  it  may  be  said,  of  their  whole  attitude  toward  the  be- 
ginnings of  Islam,  is  under  the  gravest  suspicion.  They 
use  the  same  text  of  the  Koran  as  the  Sunnites,  but  there 
are  in  circulation  amongst  them  passages  favoring  the 
family  of  AH  which  they  assert  to  have  been  suppressed 
in  the  orthodox  recension. 

(2)  The  Mystical  Organisation  and  Life. — The  begin- 
nings of  the  development  of  mysticism  in  Islam  have  been 
indicated  above  in  the  description  of  the  work  of  al-Ghaz- 
zali  (page  59),  but  the  whole  subject  is  of  such  importance 
that  it  deserves  distinct  treatment.  The  mystic  (sufl) 
should  not  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  a separate  sect.  He 
may  be  a Sunnite  or  a Shiite,  and  may  even  regard  himself 
as  outside  of  both.  The  feature  which  characterizes  the 
mystic  is  that,  whatever  may  be  his  theology,  his  religion 
consists  in  personal  devout  intercourse  with  God.^  This 
communion  he  may  combine  with  ascetic  practices  in  order 
to  “keep  the  veil  of  the  body  thin  and  the  mirror  of  the 
soul  clear,”  or  he  may  follow  a speculative  pathway  and 
combine  with  his  emotional  ecstacies  a metaphysical  search- 
ing into  the  nature  of  God  and  of  the  human  soul  and  of 
the  links  between  them.  Historically,  the  most  multifarious 
influences  have  worked  upon  the  creed  of  the  Moslem  mys- 
tic. Among  these  influences,  to  show  their  singular  variety, 
may  be  mentioned  Neo-Platonism  through  the  Christian 
mysticism  of  the  pseudo-Dionysius,  the  so-called  Areo- 
pagite,  and  also  more  directly  Buddhism  through  Buddhist 

Goldziher  is  almost  the  only  scholar  who  has  done  any  work  on  Shiite 
theology,  and  this  in  scattered  articles.  His  “Vorlesungen  uber  den  Islam”  is 
the  most  accessible  reference  work.  The  article  “Ali  in  Shiah  Tradition,”  in 
the  Moslem  World,  January,  1914,  is  full  of  value. 

2 See  further  on  p.  72. 


61 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


ascetics,  and  even  Vedantism.  It  is  entirely  possible  for  the 
Moslem  mystic  to  profess  a theology  ranging  from  a merely 
devout,  prayerful  attitude  to  God,  like  that  of  Thomas  a 
Kempis,  all  the  way  to  a perfectly  conscious  pantheism. 
Most  of  them  really  hold  pantheistic  principles,  although 
they  may  not  know  this.  The  problem,  for  example,  with 
regard  to  Al-Ghazzali  is  as  to  whether  he  knew  that  he 
was  a pantheist  or  not. 

These  mystics  have  not  formed  a distinct  sect,  yet  they 
tend  to  form  organizations.  From  the  beginning  they 
formed  circles  of  students,  growing  and  dissolving  around 
a teacher.  These  groups  often  continued  after  the  death 
of  the  teacher  who  brought  them  into  being,  but  not  until 
after  the  time  of  Al-Ghazzali  did  there  appear  self-perpetu- 
ating and  historieally  avouched  fraternities  ^ of  dervishes, 
such  as  the  Qadarites  (Qadiriya),  founded  in  1165,  the 
.Shadhilites  (Shadhillya),  founded  in  1258,  and  the  Mev- 
levites,  founded  before  1273.  Each  of  these  connects  with 
an  historical  founder,  but  also,  through  a quite  unhistorical 
chain  (silsila)  of  teachers,  professes  to  connect  itself  with 
the  prophet  and  his  companions.  Each  has  its  rule  and 
method  of  life.  The  fraternities  are  controlled  by  a sys- 
tem of  heads  and  teachers  and  require  from  their  members 
certain  ritual  practices.  A part  of  these  is  the  dhikr  ^ (or 
cikr),  but  they  have  also  a more  personal  ‘‘office”  which 
each  must  say.  The  object  of  each  of  these  is  the  expression 
of  personal  devotion  to  God.  In  the  dhikr  this  is  expressed 
by  a more  or  less  complicated  ritual,  varying  in  the  different 
fraternities,  but  consisting  partly  of  physical  movements  and 
partly  in  the  repetition  in  chorus  of  religious  formulae.  In 
these  the  names  of  Allah  often  play  a large  part,  and  also 
the  first  article  of  the  Moslem  creed  (see  p.  46).  These 

1 For  a clear,  readable  account  of  these  orders  see  “The  Religious  Orders 
of  Islam,”  by  the  Rev.  Canon  Sell  of  Madras. 

2 See  on  these  Lane’s  “Modern  Egyptians,”  ch.  xxiv,  and  by  index,  George 
Swan  in  The  Moslem  World,  vol.  ii,  pp.  380  ff.,  or  Macdonald,  “Aspects,” 
lectures  v and  vi. 


62 


RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENTS  IN  ISLAM 


tend  to  produce  at  the  least  a mild  form  of  hypnosis,  often 
developing  into  religious  ecstasy  and  even  catalepsy.  The 
membership  is  composed  of  full  members  or  of  laymen, 
like  the  Franciscan  tertiaries.  They  make  a business  of 
the  religious  life  and  are  its  vehicles.  Their  nearest 
analog  are  the  separate  congregations  of  the  Christian 
Church  with  their  religious  activities.  The  dhikr,  also, 
of  dervish  fraternities,  plays  the  part  in  Islam  that  the 
prayer  meeting  plays  with  Protestants,  and  the  frater- 
nity house  is  a combination  of  church  and  club.  Each 
fraternity  has  its  own  practices.  Thus  the  Mevlevites  are 
the  dancing  dervishes,  while  the  other  fraternities  do  not 
dance.  Each  country  also  tends  to  have  its  own  fraternities. 
There  is,  e.g.,  only  one  Bektashite  establishment  in  Egypt, 
although  there  are  very  many  in  Turkey.  The  different 
Moslem  governments  have  always  tried  to  keep  a control- 
ling hand  on  these  organizations,  if  only  from  the  outside. 
Such  numerous  and  powerful  bodies  could  not  be  left  un- 
checked as  an  imperium  in  imperio.  In  consequence  their 
chiefs  are  regularly  kept  in  relation  with  the  state.  Thus 
the  Sheik  el  BakrI  is  the  governmental  head  of  all  the 
dervish  fraternities  of  Egypt  {shaikh  shuyukh  at-tnruq). 
The  one  exception  to  this  adjustment  is  the  Senusite  fra- 
ternity, founded  in  1843  by  Sheik  al-Senusi  and  number- 
ing about  six  millions  of  members.  It  has  always  studied 
to  keep,  and  has  succeeded  in  keeping,  itself  from  state  en- 
tanglements. As  an  offshoot  of  the  Wahhabite  movement 
it  is  opposed  by  its  very  nature  to  secular  governments. 
This  attitude  has  caused  it  to  seek  shelter  for  its  mother 
house  and  central  organization  in  remote  deserts,  where  it 
may  be  free  from  worldly  control.  It  may  be  said  in  con- 
clusion that  it  is  most  desirable  that  every  missionary 
should  make  himself  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  der- 
vish fraternities  of  his  field  and  should  put  himself  into 
connection  with  them.  The  dervishes  in  some  fields,  such 


63 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


as  Turkey,  are  commonly  misunderstood  and  distrusted  by 
the  modern  Moslems.  Their  reputation  for  laziness,  largely 
justified,  is  greater  than  their  reputation  for  piety.  But 
the  missionary  should  bear  in  mind  that,  in  however  corrupt 
a form,  they  are  the  vehicles  of  the  religious  life  of  Islam 
and  among  its  chief  missionary  agencies. 

But  there  is  also,  at  least  in  the  belief  of  the  people, 
another  organization.  Among  the  dervishes  there  appear 
from  time  to  time  men  of  exceptional  gifts,  partly  religious 
in  character  and  partly  what  we  would  now  call  psychic. 
The  technical  term  for  these  is  wall  (plural  awliya,  in 
Turkish  evliyd),  and  that  name  indicates  that  they  are  be- 
lieved to  be  peculiarly  near  to  Allah.  They,  as  it  were, 
live  in  His  presence,  even  while  going  through  their  ordi- 
nary life  among  men.  The  masses  of  Islam  firmly  believe 
that  these  men  are  organized  into  a spiritual  hierarchy  in 
closest  touch  with  Allah  and  enjoying  miraculous  powers, 
stretching  down  from  a single  head,  called  the  Axis  (Qutb), 
through  gradually  widening  ranks  until  it  embraces  every 
true  wali  of  Allah.  Through  this  spiritual  organization  it 
is  believed  that  Allah  administers  the  affairs  of  the  world. 
This  is  the  nearest  that  Islam  has  come  to  the  conception 
of  a broad  ecclesiastical  organization  like  that  of  the  Roman 
Church,  and  is  evidently  an  effort  of  the  popular  imagina- 
tion to  offset  the  secularization  of  Islam  in  its  different 
governments.  The  administration  of  Islam  may  have 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  merely  worldly,  but  the  people 
in  this  way  have  built  up  in  their  imaginations  an  adminis- 
tration that  remains  spiritual  and  religious. 

(3)  Wahhabism. — Wahhabism  is  opposed  to  the  mys- 
tical movement  at  almost  every  point,  except  that  it  also 
is  an  effort  to  purify  the  religion  and  to  realize  the  ideal 
of  Islam.  It  appeared  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century  as  a reform  movement,  endeavoring  to  reproduce 
the  situation  and  attitudes  of  the  first  generations.  Its 


64 


RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENTS  IN  ISLAM 


ideal  is  the  Islam  of  the  Companions  of  Mohammed,  and 
it  seeks  to  do  away  with  all  later  developments  and  changes, 
however  they  may  have  been  accepted  through  the  Agree- 
ment of  the  Moslem  people.  Its  three  bases  are  Koran 
and  Sunna  and  the  Agreement  of  the  immediate  Compan- 
ions. But  reform  movements  in  Islam  almost  inevitably 
pass  from  preaching  to  fighting  and  this  Wahhabite  move- 
ment soon  swept  over  Arabia  sword  in  hand.  Mecca  and 
Medina  were  taken,  and,  at  one  time,  a new  war  of  con- 
quest issuing  from  Arabia  to  flood  the  Moslem  world  seemed 
probable.  But  prompt  action  by  Turkey  through  Egypt 
checked  this  aggressive  movement;  and  now  the  only 
sovereign  Wahhabite  state  left  is  that  at  Riyad  in  Central 
Arabia.  But  the  reforming  impulse,  although  checked  and 
turned  in  its  militant  form,  spread  rapidly  by  propaganda 
through  the  Moslem  world,  and  was  undoubtedly  an 
element  in  the  general  toning  up  of  Islam  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  As  opposed  to  the  dervish  fraternities  and  to  the 
mystical  life  in  general  this  movement  emphasized  salva- 
tion by  precision  of  orthodox  belief  and  through  the  close  ob- 
servance of  the  customs  of  the  Prophet  and  his  Companions. 
Its  ideal  would  be  that  the  state  should  enforce  the  observ- 
ance of  all  details  of  the  canon  law,  as  was  done  in  the 
time  of  the  first  caliphs.  The  state  at  Riyad  is  therefore 
now  the  only  state  which  rejects  the  second,  the  secular, 
system  of  law  mentioned  above  (p.  50).  Wahhabism  at 
one  time  took  strong  hold  of  many  Indian  Moslems,  even 
to  the  extent  of  threatening  revolt.  Religiously  it  is  still 
an  influence  There.  The  roots  of  the  Senusite  fraternity 
of  dervishes  also  run  back  into  Wahhabism,  although  as 
an  organization  it  has  long  been  entirely  separate. 

(4)  Bahism  and  Baha’ism. — The  central  idea  of  the 
Shifite  faith  is  that  authority  to  teach  and  to  govern  is 
vested  in  an  individual  appointed  thereto  by  Allah,  who  is 
a descendant  of  the  prophet  through  Ali  and  Fatima,  and 


65 


PRESEInTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


in  whom  there  is  contained  some  element  of  divinity.  He 
is  called  an  imam,  and  inasmuch  as  the  Persian  division  of 
the  Shi'ites  teaches  that  there  have  been  twelve  imams 
down  to  Mohammed  ibn  el  Hasan,  that  division  is  called 
“the  Twelvers”  (ithnd  ‘asharlya).  This  imam  vanished 
from  the  sight  of  men  in  A.H.  260  (A.D.  873-4)  and  since 
then  the  Persian  Shihtes,  who  believe  that  he  is  being  kept 
alive  by  Allah  in  retirement,  have  looked  for  his  return. 
For  a number  of  years  after  his  vanishing,  i.e.,  up  to  A.H. 
329  (A.D.  940-1),  communication  between  him  and  his 
followers  was  supposedly  maintained  through  four  succes- 
sive intermediaries  who  were  each  called  Bab  (door). 
Thereafter  it  had  ceased.  But  in  the  eighteenth  and 
nineteenth  centuries,  there  appeared  in  a sect  called  the 
Sheikhis  the  belief  that  there  must  always  be  amongst 
men  a Bab  in  direct  spiritual  communication  with  the 
hidden  Imam.  In  A.H.  1260  (A.D.  1844),  just  1,000 
lunar  years  after  the  vanishing,  the  position  of  Bab  was 
claimed  by  Mirza  ‘All  Mohammed  and  the  Babi  sect  was 
founded.^  It  is  naturally  impossible  here  to  trace  out 
the  history  of  this  sect  and  of  the  splits  which  eventually 
brought  forth  from  it  the  Baha’i  sect,  now  by  far  the  more 
numerous,  and  which  itself,  in  the  last  few  years,  has  split 
into  the  followers  of  ‘Abbas  Efendi  and  those  of  Moham- 
med ‘AH.  In  the  course  of  its  historical  development  Babism 
has  passed  from  being  Mohammedan  and  Shi‘ite  to  being 
a new  religion.  From  the  very  first  its  followers  rejected 
the  finality  of  the  Koran  and  of  the  mission  of  Mohammed, 
but  otherwise  their  thought  was  specifically  Shi‘ite.  The 
Baha’is,  on  the  other  hand,  while  showing  manifold  in- 
fluences from  Islam,  propound  what  is  really  a new  theology 

1 The  writings  of  Professor  E.  G.  Browne  of  Cambridge  and,  particularly, 
his  valuable  article  “Bab”  in  volume  ii  of  Hastings’  “Encyclopedia  of  Religion 
and  Ethics,”  should  be  consulted  by  the  student.  Compare  also  the  review  of 
Roemer’s  Die  Babi-Beha‘i  in  IRM,  i,  546-551,  and  the  Report  of  Com.  IV  of 
the  Edinburgh  Conference  of  1910. 


66 


RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENTS  IN  ISLAM 


and  a new  attitude  toward  life/  Their  God  is  unknowable, 
transcending  human  comprehension,  as,  in  a way,  also,  does 
the  Allah  of  the  Moslem  scholastics.  But  their  prophet, 
regarded  also  as  divine,  is  to  be  completely  followed  and 
worshiped,  being  an  absolute  Head  and  teacher.  As  op- 
posed to  Sufiism  (p.  73)  Bahahsm  is  dogmatic,  accepting 
the  utterances  of  the  Head  without  reserve.  As  opposed 
to  modern  rationalism  its  positions  are  based  upon  super- 
natural sanctions  often  descending  to  arguments  from  the 
numerical  value  of  letters,  like  the  discussion  among  some 
Christians  of  the  number  of  the  Beast  (Rev.  13:18).  These 
distinctions  are  important  because  of  the  spread  of  Babism 
and  Bahahsm  in  America.  It  is  asserted  that  there  have 
been  gained  several  thousand  North  American  adherents, 
since  the  beginning  of  their  propaganda  at  Chicago  about 
1892.  Of  the  numbers  of  Babis  and  Bahahs  in  Persia 
itself  there  are  the  most  contradictory  estimates.  Some 
good  authorities  think  that  it  has  passed  the  zenith  of  its 
propaganda. 

(5)  The  Ahmadiya. — The  Ahmadiya  (ahmadiya)  sect 
appeared  in  Qadiyan  in  the  Punjab  about  fifty  miles  from 
Lahore,  thirty  or  forty  years  ago,  and  was  founded  by 
Mirza  Ghulam  Ahmad,^  who  combined  three  claims  in 
himself : to  be  the  Mahdi  of  Islam,  to  be  a reincarnation  of 
Jesus,  and  to  be  the  final  avatar  of  the  Hindus.  As  a 
Moslem  he  was  in  essential  heresy,  and  his  followers  are 
now  rejected  as  Moslems  by  orthodox  Islam,  but  the  diver- 
gence of  the  sect  is  not  so  great  as  that  of  the  Baha’ites. 
He  taught  that  Jesus  did  not  die  on  the  cross,  but  came 
to  India,  settled  at  Srinagar  in  Kashmir  and  died  there, 
where  they  show  his  tomb;  and  declared,  further,  that  the 
Mahdi  of  Islam  and  Jesus,  who,  according  to  orthodox 

1 See  “Bahaism  in  Persia,”  by  Frame.  The  Moslem  World,  ii,  236,  ff. 

2 Rev.  H.  D.  Gris\vold  has  published  a pamphlet  bearing  the  name  of  this 
leader  which  describes  the  movement.  The  most  authoritative  and  satisfying 
account  is  in  the  book  by  Walter  noted  in  the  bibliography  and  in  his  articles  in 
The  Moslem  World,  vi,  66  ff.  and  in  “Encyclopedia  of  Religion  and  Ethics.” 

67 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


Moslem  belief,  is  to  return  to  the  earth  before  the  judgment 
to  introduce  universal  Islam,  were  united  in  his  own  person. 
That  Jesus  when  he  returns  will  also  be  the  Mahdi  has 
been  held  by  many  Moslems.  The  first  public  appearance 
of  the  Mirza  was  in  1880,  but  serious  preaching  of  his 
cause  did  not  come  until  after  1889.  He  professed  to  work 
miracles  and  to  prophesy.  His  combination  of  Jesus  with 
the  Mahdi  led  to  an  essential  change  in  his  doctrine  of  the 
character  of  the  latter.  The  Mahdi  of  orthodox  Islam  is 
a warrior  who  subdues  the  unbeliever  with  the  sword,  as 
also  shall  the  returned  Jesus  of  Islam,  but  the  Ahmadiya 
movement  has  been  throughout  a peaceful  one.  It  rejects 
jihad  and  condemns  all  fanaticism.  Ghulam  Ahmad  used 
as  his  theological  basis  both  the  Koran  and  the  Christian 
Scriptures,  but  was  eclectic  and  even  skeptical  in  his  use 
of  traditions.  He  believed  in  education  and  in  literary 
propaganda  and,  regarding  himself  as  “sent”  to  the  whole 
world,  pushed  that  propaganda  beyond  Moslem  countries, 
and  especially  into  England  through  the  monthly  Review 
of  Religions.  His  support  in  Indian  Islam  has  been  mostly 
found  amongst  those  who  had  some  Western  education. 
Since  his  death  tendencies  towards  division  have  appeared, 
and  also  towards  rationalism.  In  England  the  sect  poses 
as  orthodox  Islam,  a position  denied  to  it  by  all  orthodox 
Moslems. 

(6)  The  Neo-Mu^tazilites. — The  Islam  of  India  has 
haturally  been  more  affected  by  Western  education  than 
that  of  any  other  Moslem  country.  Under  that  stimulus 
there  has  arisen  a reformed  Islam,  the  object  of  which  is 
to  make  Islam  a possible  faith  in  the  modern  world.  As 
advocates  of  a reformed  and  therefore  a rationalized  Islam 
its  holders  have  fallen  back  quite  a little  on  the  Muhazilite 
sect  of  early  rationalists  and  therefore,  though  all  historical 
continuity  is  lacking,  call  themselves  Mu'tazilites.  Their 
theological  attitudes  also  are  very  different  from  those  of 


68 


RELIGIOUS  MOVEMENTS  IN  ISLAM 


the  original  Mu'tazilites,  They  are  practically  Unitarians 
who  put  Mohammed  in  the  place  of  Christ,  while  the  orig- 
inal Mu'tazilites,  though  applying  reason  to  the  doctrines 
of  Islam,  were  in  many  respects  more  narrow,  dogmatic 
and  bigoted  than  the  orthodox  Moslems  of  their  time.  For 
example,  they  felt  compelled  on  the  basis  of  their  a priori 
principles  to  teach  that  the  prophets  were  all  preserved  by 
Allah  from  sin,  a position  that  the  modern  Mu'tazilite 
would  hardly  maintain.  The  educational  center  of  the 
movement  is  in  the  Anglo-Oriental  College  at  Aligarh 
in  northern  India,  an  institution  whose  influence  is  un- 
doubtedly deep  upon  Moslem  Indian  life  and  thought,  and 
is  now  spreading  into  other  Moslem  countries. 

(7)  Other  Developments. — Finally,  the  supposed  unity 
of  Islam  was  menaced  from  the  very  beginning  by  the  in- 
fluences which  it  found  awaiting  it  in  the  different  countries 
to  which  it  had  spread.  In  that  way,  for  example,  the 
Islam  of  Sumatra  has  been  deeply  affected  by  Animism 
and  therefore  must  be  carefully  differentiated  from  the 
Islam  of,  say,  Egypt  or  Turkey.  And,  secondly,  in  the 
modern  world,  Islam  is  being  affected  by  influences  Chris- 
tian, intellectual,  educational,  social  and  economic  to  a 
degree  which  threatens  to  break  up  entirely  even  what  unity 
has  been  left  to  it. 


Vni.  The  Existing  Types  of  Moslems  as  a Result 
OF  These  Influences 

In  order  to  gain  clearness  and  to  avoid  logical  cross 
divisions,  it  may  be  well  to  study  the  Moslem  world  under 
three  general  groupings:  (a)  as  affected  by  the  forces  at 
present  acting  upon  Islam  from  without;  (b)  according 
to  its  inner  attitude  toward  Islam;  and  (c)  according  to 
race  and  environment. 


69 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


1.  As  Affected  by  Forces  from  Without  Islam. 

(a)  The  Purists. — There  are  very  many  Moslems  who, 
when  confronted  by  the  modern  world,  instinctively  desire 
to  flee  away  from  it,  to  avoid  any  contact  with  it  that  may 
contaminate  the  purity  of  their  faith,  and  especially  to 
avoid  such  entanglements  as  may  hinder  them  in  the  careful 
observance  of  the  ritual  and  other  requirements  of  their 
faith.  The  most  conspicuous  example  of  this  type  of  mind 
is  the  Senusite  fraternity  of  dervishes.  It  is  shown  by 
their  steady  retirement  into  less  and  less  accessible  recesses 
of  the  Sudan.  This  policy  has  been  pursued,  not  only  to 
avoid  contact  with  Europe,  but  also  to  free  themselves 
from  the  control  of  the  supposedly  contaminated  Turkish 
Government.  There  are  individuals  to  be  found  everywhere 
in  Islam  who  show  the  same  tendency  to  shrink  away  from 
what  they  deem  to  be  dangerous  influences. 

(b)  The  Conservatives. — There  are  also  those  whose  im- 
pulse is  to  face  the  enemies  of  Islam  and  to  hold  to  the  old 
ways.  These  are  conservatives  and  also  fighters,  whether 
intellectually  or  with  actual  weapons.  Among  them  are 
everywhere  to  be  reckoned  the  ‘Ulama,  who  are  the  pro- 
fessional theologians  of  each  community  in  Islam.  They 
would  be  found  in  such  a representative  body  as  the  staff 
of  the  Azhar  ^ University  at  Cairo  and  also  among  the 
Egyptian  nationalists. 

(c)  The  Modernists. — But  there  are  also  those  who 
realize  that  the  old  Islam  cannot  continue  and  must  be 
essentially  modernized.  Among  such  there  are  two  defi- 
nite tendencies.  The  first  one  is  to  regard  the  modernizing 
as  the  principal  need,  whatever  may  happen  to  Islam  in  the 
process.  The  most  conspicuous  example  of  this  tendency 

1 The  fame  of  this  institution  is  world-wide,  but  its  influence  in  active 
propaganda  may  be  overestimated.  In  1909,  according  to  Gairdner,  its  total 
number  of  students  was  less  than  a thousand.  Its  graduates  are  far  more 
likely  to  settle  down  as  law  authorities  in  some  well-Islamized  district  than  to 
become  missionaries.  See  Arminjon,  “L’Enseignement”  (72). 


70 


EXISTING  MOSLEM  TYPES 


is  the  Young  Turkish  movement.  It  cares  little  for  Islam, 
if  only  the  Ottoman  Empire  may  be  modernized  and  so 
may  survive.  But  there  is  another  reforming  party  to 
whom,  not  their  country  and  their  race,  but  their  religion, 
is  now  the  principal  consideration.  They  wish  to  pro- 
duce an  Islam  that  will  be  possible  in  the  modern  world, 
but  it  must  still  be  Islam.  The  best  example  of  this  ten- 
dency is  to  be  found  in  the  Egyptian  nationalists.  They 
may  call  themselves  Egyptian  and  nationalist,  but  it  is  of 
Islam  that  they  are  always  thinking.  The  instrument  which 
these  last  named  hope  to  use  in  their  reforms  is  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Agreement.  According  to  that  doctrine  the 
Moslem  people,  if  they  can  only  agree,  can  make  of  Islam 
what  they  please.  The  young  Turks,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  not  greatly  concerned  to  avail  themselves  of  a legal 
device  like  this.  If  Islam  should  show  itself  standing 
obstinately  in  their  way,  they  would  not  scruple  to  throw 
it  over.  This  is  what  lies  behind  the  New  Turanian  move- 
ment {Yenl  Tiirdn).^ 

2.  According  to  Their  Inner  Attitude. — People  natur- 
ally tend  to  be  conservatives,  individualists  or  reformers 
(progressives).  So  in  Islam  we  find: 

(a)  The  Traditionalist. — He  holds  by  the  faith  of  his 
fathers  through  a natural  instinct.  He  unreservedly  ad- 
heres to  what  he  has  been  taught.  There  often  lies  in  this 
firmness  a kind  of  patriotism.  For  him  Islam  takes  the 
place  of  a fatherland.  He  is  a fellow  citizen  with  the  other 
Moslems  of  the  world.  The  mere  carrying  out  of  the 
prayers,  of  the  prescriptions,  of  the  various  obligations  of 
a true  IMoslem  according  to  the  usage  that  he  has  learned 
satisfies  his  spiritual  being.  The  theologian  would  say  of 
him,  half  scornfully,  that  he  was  an  imitator  (muqallid), 
and  some  would  even  go  the  length  of  doubting  whether 
he  really  possessed  a saving  faith,  inasmuch  as  he  could 

1 See  “The  Arabian  Situation”  in  The  Nation  for  November  8,  1917. 


71 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


give  no  argued  reason  for  it.  Of  this  type  are  the  great 
masses  of  uneducated  Islam. 

(b)  The  Legalist. — From  the  traditionalist  develops  an- 

other type.  Its  absorbing  interest  lies  in  the  details  of  the 
ritual  law,  since  its  representatives  believe  that  salvation 
lies  in  the  settlement  of  matters  of  “mint,  anise  and  cum- 
min.” This  type  has  been  educated  in  a typically  Moslem 
school,  such  as  the  Azhar,  along  old  lines.  Its  faith  must 
be  a reasoned  faith,  but  reasoned  on  a scholastic  basis. 
It  is  perhaps  even  further  than  the  first  type  from  the 
modern  world,  for  it  has  the  armor  of  a certain  sort  of 
education  and  learning.  This  is  the  class,  not  so  large  as 
influential,  of  the  interpreters  of  the  law  U lama) , who  are 

scholastic  intellectualists,  and  have  little  contact  with  the 
visions  and  aspirations  of  the  religious  life.  Islam  for 
them  is  a theology  and  not  an  experience.  They  look  for- 
ward across  an  intervening  period  of  deterioration,  whose 
conclusion  will  synchronize  with  the  coming  of  the  Mahdi, 
to  a millennial  day  when  a new  life  will  quicken  the  failing 
system  of  Islam,  but  the  goal  they  anticipate  is  that  of 
Mohammed  and  the  early  fathers. 

(c)  The  Mystic. — When  the  thoughtful  Moslem  is  also 
religiously-minded  there  appears  a third  type.  The  tra- 
ditionalist does  not  do  much  thinking;  the  legalist  has  little 
real  religious  spirit.  But  let  a Moslem  be  both  thoughtful 
and  religious  and  he  is  bound  to  enter  upon  the  path  of  the 
mystic.  He  is  driven  to  think  out  for  himself  his  personal 
relationship  to  Allah  and  that  relationship  will  express  it- 
self in  free  terms  of  experience  and  emotion  rather  than 
in  the  formulas  of  scholastic  theology.  He  is  not  an  intel- 
lectualist,  except  as  he  uses  the  intellect  for  its  own  self- 
destruction,  and  having  thus  reached  an  agnostic  position 
falls  back  upon  the  experience  of  the  individual  as  the  only 
certainty.  From  this  assumed  personal  basis  the  mystic 
may  go  back  to  the  traditional  faith  of  his  fathers,  or  he 

72 


EXISTING  MOSLEM  TYPES 


may  sweep  out  in  metaphysical  speculations  as  to  the 
ultimate  and  basic  nature  of  God,  of  the  world  or  of  him- 
self. He  will  commonly  call  himself  a Sufi  (Sfifl),  a term 
derived  from  the  woolen  robe  which  the  earliest  ascetic 
mystics  used  to  wear,  but  that  term  indicates  nothing  ex- 
cept that  he  bases  his  faith  upon  his  own  experiences  in 
his  intercourse  with  the  Divine.  The  mystic  may  be  a 
member  of  a dervish  fraternity,  or  he  may  hold  himself 
aloof  from  all  organizations.  The  spell  of  Islam  to  him  is 
neither  its  ritual  nor  its  racial  significance,  but  its  lofty 
conception  of  God.  The  Sufi  is  the  Platonist  or  even  the 
Neo-platonist  of  Islam. 

(d)  The  Individualist. — Opposed  to  all  these,  at  one 
point  or  another,  is  the  individualist,  who  is  also  a modern- 
ist or  reformer.  He  recognizes  that  the  Islam  of  his 
fathers  is  impossible  in  the  modern  world  and  stands  for 
its  reconstruction.  Only  sentiment  holds  him  to  the  older 
faith,  but  that  tie  may  be  very  strong.  The  music  and 
mystery  of  the  Koran  sound  in  his  ears,  while  the  figure  of 
Mohammed  assumes  for  him  a rare  personal  attraction.  He 
believes  that  Islam  may  assimilate,  if  it  does  not  manifest, 
every  vital  element  in  religion.  In  consequence  he  has  an 
instinct  along  with  all  his  reforming  insight  and  energy  to 
revert  either  to  the  simple  Koran  or  to  what  he  can  assure 
himself  of  regarding  the  position  of  Mohammed.  He 
throws  aside  the  dialectic  of  the  scholastic  or  only  retains 
it  as  a weapon  against  those  who  are  without.  He  may 
be  a mystic  or  not;  but  his  individualism  does  not  leave 
him  self-centered,  but  rather  urges  him  to  seek  the  good 
of  the  community.  He  is  missionary  in  spirit.  His  re- 
ligious passion  often  reaches  the  point  of  bigotry.  In  his 
relationship  with  his  fellows  he  has  naturally  to  be  all  things 
to  all  men.  To  effect  the  reforms  which  he  seeks  he  cannot 
afford  to  offend  the  other  types,  however  little  sympathy 
he  may  have  with  them.  Such  men,  of  course,  vary  greatly 

73 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


in  weight  of  character,  learning  and  influence.  They  vary, 
too,  in  sincerity  and  honesty  as  regards  themselves  and 
others.  There  are  very  many  of  them,  but  yet  occa- 
sionally there  even  appears  in  this  class  a figure  which 
reminds  us  of  the  wandering  scholars  of  the  Renaissance, 
such  as  Erasmus.  For  in  this  connection  it  should  never 
be  forgotten  that  the  Moslem  world  is  passing  through  a 
real  renaissance  with  all  its  tangled  motives  and  crossing 
currents,  and  this  Erasmus  of  Islam  may,  on  another  side 
of  his  brain,  be  a political  schemer.  The  individualist  is 
represented  by  Aligarh  in  India,  or  by  the  type  in  Egypt 
which  Lord  Cromer  called  a modern  Moslem.  He  is  an 
ardent  supporter  of  nationalist  movements  everywhere. 

(e)  The  Materialist. — There  remains  a type  which  is  a 
problem  and  a danger,  not  only  for  the  world  of  Islam,  but 
for  the  world  at  large,  the  materialist.  The  young  men 
who  are  going  through  the  modern  schools  and  receiving 
a so-called  modern  education  are  largely  losing  their  own 
religion  and  gaining  no  other  to  put  in  its  place.  Islam 
with  them  is  little  more  than  a racial  cult.  The  missionary 
will  find  that  his  task  with  such  men  is  not  to  convert 
them  from  Islam  to  Christianity,  but  to  convince  them  that 
there  is  need  of  any  religion  at  all.  They  are  indifferent 
and  worldly,  not  reformers,  because  they  have  no  ideals. 
When  they  maintain  some  relationship  to  Islam  it  is  as 
the  only  religion  for  a sensible  man  or  as  the  religion  of  the 
State.  They  are  a natural  product  of  an  education  in  which 
religion  has  no  part,  and  one  of  the  problems  for  the  mis- 
sionary of  the  future  will  be  how  to  put  religion  back  into 
their  education.  This  problem,  of  course,  is  appearing 
everywhere  in  the  mission  field;  but  in  Islam  it  is  peculiarly 
difficult,  for,  except  in  the  dervish  fraternities,  there  is  no 
organization  in  Islam  for  the  broad  teaching  of  religion, 
and  the  fraternities  tend  to  affect  the  lower,  uneducated 
classes  only,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  on  account  of  Islam’s 

74 


EXISTING  MOSLEM  TYPES 


definite  antagonism  to  Christianity,  some  missionary  educa- 
tional institutions  have  been  too  much  inclined  to  minimize  a 
positive  Christian  emphasis.  Here,  therefore,  there  is  a 
wide  field  and  opportunity  for  wise  yet  firm  evangelistic 
work  in  such  institutions  and  for  such  organizations  as  the 
Young  Men’s  and  Young  Women’s  Christian  Associations. 
3.  According  to  Race  and  Environment. 

(a)  The  Original  Moslem  Type. — This  type  can  hardly 
be  found  outside  of  Arabia.  There  it  still  lives  the  life 
which  the  prophet  lived  and  there  only  is  his  exact  imitation 
a possibility.  It  might  seem  natural  to  take  the  Wahhabites 
as  the  example  of  this  original  type;  but  even  among  them, 
in  spite  of  their  endeavor  to  revert  to  the  usage  of  the 
prophet  and  of  his  companions,  much  of  the  later  scholas- 
ticism is  to  be  found.  Still  more  at  Mecca  is  the  university 
there  an  example  of  mediaeval  and  not  of  primitive  Islam. 
In  certain  respects  the  court  of  the  ibn  Rashids  at  Hayil 
in  the  Nejd  is  a better  example  of  the  Arabia  of  Moham- 
med’s time,  because  it  is  more  the  capital  of  an  Arab  state, 
and  is  not  affected  by  the  puritanic  rigors  of  Riyad  or  the 
scholastic  theology  and  law  of  Mecca.  The  ancient  civiliza- 
tion of  Yemen,  always  different  from  that  of  central  and 
northern  Arabia,  the  Ibadite  settlement  at  Oman  (‘Uman) 
and  the  pearl  divers  and  fishermen  and  reformed  pirates  of 
Bahrain  on  the  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf  are  examples  of 
still  other  phases  of  the  Arab  type. 

(b)  The  Types  Produced  by  National  Mixtures. — When 
the  adherents  of  Islam  issued  from  the  desert  they  en- 
countered other  and  different  races  and  had  to  adapt  the 
new  regime  to  them.  Some  of  these  races  were  closely 
akin  to  them,  such  as  the  population  of  Syria;  others  were 
very  different,  such  as  the  peoples  of  Persia,  Egypt  and 
North  Africa.  Still  later  came  the  contact  with  the  differ- 
ent Turkish  tribes  and  with  the  very  mixed  population  of 
Asia  Minor  and  with  the  peoples  of  Central  Asia.  Later 

75 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


Still  came  the  contact  with  India.  The  further  that  Islam 
had  to  travel  and  the  stranger  the  races  that  it  met,  the 
greater  were  the  modifications  that  it  underwent,  especially 
in  its  popular  forms.  The  elasticity  of  the  four  separate 
schools  of  canon  law  (p.  51)  helped  the  matter  of  adjust- 
ment, and  even  different  systems  of  theology,  as  those  of 
Ash‘ari  and  Maturldi,  were  accepted  as  possible  in  orthodox 
Islam.  Another  source  of  adjustment  came  with  the  split 
between  the  Sunnites  and  the  Shifites,  and  the  conflicting 
claims  to  the  Caliphate  were  often  an  expression  of  separate 
nationality.  And  behind  these  differences  recognized  in 
Moslem  theory  and  literature  were  the  still  greater  differ- 
ences of  popular  belief,  usage  and  law,  which  even  reached 
formal  expression  in  the  different  systems  of  secular  law 
mentioned  above. 

(c)  Extreme  Types. — Other  races,  lying  still  further 
away  from  Mecca,  diverging  still  more  clearly  in  type  and 
reached  still  later,  were  those  of  Central  Africa  and  of 
the  Dutch  East  Indies.  In  these  lands  their  primitive 
Animism  has  so  altered  their  acquired  faith  that  it  is  often 
hard  to  recognize  that  the  people  are  Moslems  at  all. 

(d)  Conclusion. — In  view  then  of  all  these  types  within 
Islam,  it  is  plain  that  while  the  missionary  should  secure 
a good  knowledge  of  what  may  be  called  book-Islam,  it  will 
be  necessary  for  him  on  his  field  and  in  contact  with  his 
people  to  study  anew  and  with  great  care  their  particular 
type  of  religious  development.  It  will  be  vital  that  he  shall 
guard  against  being  blinded  to  such  divergencies  by  what 
he  knows  of  book-Islam,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  avoid  ac- 
cepting the  attitudes  and  beliefs  of  his  field  for  those  of 
the  Moslem  world  in  general.  This  latter  danger  is  in 
practice  the  real  one. 


76 


IX.  What  Christianity  May  Add  to  Islam 


The  fact  that  one-seventh  of  the  human  race  professes 
Islam  not  only  warrants  but  compels  a careful  study  of  the 
vital  elements  in  the  religion  which  Mohammed  proclaimed. 
Islam  is  not  moribund  or  quiescent,  but  aggressive.  Its 
adherents  are  devoted,  even  fanatical.  It  has  gripping 
power  over  the  human  heart,  it  sways  innumerable  lives 
along  channels  which  are  by  no  means  those  of  least  re- 
sistance, it  manifests  a real  vitality.  Christianity  cannot 
brush  Islam  aside,  but  must  prove  that  it  deals  more  satis- 
factorily with  the  universe.  It  is  a duty  of  the  missionary 
to  Moslems  to  consider  how  Christianity  may  best  be  pre- 
sented to  them  so  that  it  may  enlist  their  devotedness  and 
their  faithfulness  and  offer  the  richer  life  of  the  spirit 
through  fellowship  with  the  divine  to  which  Islam  scarcely 
aspires.  First  of  all  he  may  well  consider  what  Christian- 
ity has  to  offer  to  the  Moslem. 

(1)  An  Emphasis  Upon  the  Ethical  Character  of  God 
and  Upon  the  Real  Nature  of  Sin. — It  is  one  of  the  great 
glories  of  the  Hebrew  people  that  in  their  religious  thinking 
they  came  to  regard  Jehovah,  their  God,  as  a Being  essen- 
tially moral,  supremely  holy.  This  emphasis  on  the  ethical 
character  of  God  has  not  taken  place  in  any  at  all  com- 
parable degree  in  the  Allah  of  the  Moslems.  Good  and 
evil  for  Islam  are  left  in  an  ambiguous  position.  At  one 
time  they  may  be  treated  as  though  they  were  realities  in 
themselves,  but  at  another  time  they  are  made  entirely 
dependent  upon  the  will  of  Allah.  In  the  theology  of  Islam 
it  is  explicitly  declared  that  good  is  what  Allah  states  to  be 
good,  and  evil  what  he  states  to  be  evil,  and  to  assign  an 
essential  existence  to  good  and  evil  is  heresy.  Islam  goes 
beyond  even  the  most  extreme  historically  Calvinistic  teach- 
ings in  asserting  that  “Allah  leads  astray  whom  He  wills,” 
and  that  “there  is  no  necessity  upon  Him  to  do  that  which 


77 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


may  be  the  best  for  the  creature.”  Christianity  needs  to 
make  clear  to  the  Moslem  mind  the  essential  inconceivability 
of  such  a position  with  regard  to  a being  who  can  be  called 
God,  and  while  asserting  the  absoluteness  of  the  will  of 
God  it  must  assert  also  His  holiness,  justice  and  truth.  The 
missionary  will  grasp  any  opportunity  to  develop  in  detail 
the  Christian  conception  of  our  just  and  merciful  Heavenly 
Father.  He  will  undoubtedly  encounter  theological  subtle- 
ties in  opposition,  but  he  will  likewise  find  a response  in 
many  a Moslem  mind. 

The  assertion  of  the  ethical  character  of  God  makes 
necessary  the  consideration  of  sin  as  a fact  in  the  world, 
however  it  may  have  entered  the  world.  The  missionary 
will  probably  discover  that  the  Moslem  is  inclined  to  accept 
the  fact  of  sin  and  of  sinfulness  in  man  as  something  that 
is  there  and  cannot  be  helped.  This  is  because  for  him 
sin  is  a part  of  the  created  nature  of  man,  “Man  that  is 
created  of  clay,  how  can  he  be  aught  but  sinful  ?”  The 
story  of  the  Fall,  however  interpreted,  has  undoubtedly 
had  large  ethical  value  in  Christendom  by  reason  of  its 
assumption  that  sin  did  not  inhere  in  the  first  creation. 
Whoever  discusses  sin  with  a Moslem  should  acquaint  him- 
self carefully  with  the  Moslem  doctrine  of  the  nafs,  which 
is  practically  equivalent  to  our  “flesh,”  ^ which  must  be  sub- 
dued and  brought  into  acquiescence  with  and  rest  in  the 
will  of  God.  This  is  analogous  to  the  moral  and  spiritual 
transformation  on  which  Christianity  insists,  and  will  serve 
to  open  the  way  to  a helpful  discussion  of  the  real  nature 
of  sin. 

(2)  The  Conception  of  a Mediator  Between  God  and 
Man. — It  is  a striking  paradox  in  Islam  that  its  theology 
labors  to  make  God  really  unknowable  to  man,  while  its 
religious  faith  and  experience  assert  that  God  reveals  Him- 
self immediately  to  every  man  who  turns  towards  Him. 

^ Macdonald : “Religious  Attitude.”  Lecture  8. 

78 


WHAT  CHRISTIANITY  MAY  ADD 


To  the  devout  Moslem  those  two  declarations  seem  irrecon- 
cilable ; but  Christianity  seeks  to  break  down  the  theological 
conception  of  an  absolute  God  which  fosters  the  first  con- 
clusion, and,  by  developing  the  Christian  Trinity  and  the 
mediating  work  of  Christ  as  a part  of  that  Trinity,  gives 
a reasoned  basis  for  the  second.  Again,  the  second,  the 
religious  attitude,  is  in  constant  danger  of  passing  into  a 
pantheism  in  which  the  individual  loses  his  entity  in  the 
Divine.  But  the  Christian  teaching  of  the  spiritual  union 
of  the  believer  with  Christ,  even  while  fully  retaining  his 
own  identity,  is  a real  solution.  The  yearning  of  the 
Moslem  mystic  for  absolute  contact  with  his  Lord  can  be 
satisfied,  and  yet  the  personality  of  both  can  be  saved.  On 
the  theological  side,  also,  Islam  has  tended  towards  pan- 
theism, because  of  the  emphasis  which  it  has  laid  upon  the 
unique  reality  of  Allah.  The  world  of  created  things  has, 
in  consequence,  tended  to  be  regarded  as  an  unreal,  passing 
show.  But  the  proper  teaching  of  the  Christian  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity  sets  forth  a God  who  is  imminent  in  his  crea- 
tion, but  does  not  absorb  it. 

(3)  The  Thought  of  Man  as  Made  in  God’s  Own  Image. 
— In  the  Christian  doctrine  that  man  is  made  in  the  image 
of  God  there  is  implied  the  possibility  of  man,  approxi- 
mately yet  sufficiently,  knowing  God.  This  is  essential  to 
all  Christian  thought  and  may  well  be  emphasized  with 
Moslems.  But  the  missionary  should  also  know  that  mys- 
tical Islam  teaches  the  same  doctrine  which  has  been  crys- 
tallized in  a tradition  put  into  the  mouth  of  Mohammed. 
“Man  was  created  in  the  image  of  Allah”  {fl  surati-lldh) . 
This,  of  course,  is  in  flat  contradiction  with  the  doctrine  of 
the  Difference  as  that  doctrine  is  commonly  stated  by  the 
theologians.  Mystics,  however,  reply  that  the  Difference 
only  affects  the  essence  of  Allah,  his  dhat  which  is  absolute 
and  unconditioned,  while  that  of  the  creature  is  finite  and 
conditioned. 


79 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


(4)  The  Brotherhood  of  All  Men  and  the  Fatherhood  of 
God. — With  reference  to  those  distinctive  Christian  teach- 
ings, also,  we  encounter  another  conflict  between  Islam’s 
theory  and  practice.  Theological  and  legal  Islam,  on  the 
basis  both  of  the  Koran  and  of  tradition  from  the  prophet, 
entirely  reject  the  idea  of  the  brotherhood  of  all  men. 
Scholars  argue  that  men  are  either  Moslems  or  not.  If 
they  are  Moslems  they  are  brothers,  otherwise  not.  True 
friendship  even  between  Moslems  and  non-Moslems  they 
declare  to  be  explicitly  forbidden.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
mystics  of  Islam  accept  and  reiterate  the  brotherhood  of 
men  and  even  the  equality  before  Allah  of  the  different 
faiths.  When  this  last  stage  of  conviction  has  been  reached, 
the  mystic,  of  course,  has  ceased  to  be  a Moslem,  but  it  is 
exceedingly  difficult  to  state  where  this  stage  really  begins. 
A similar  situation  holds  with  reference  to  the  idea  of  the 
fatherhood  of  God.  All  Islam,  theological  and  religious, 
refuses  to  use  the  terms  “Father”  and  “Son”  of  God  and 
man,  but  devout  Islam,  while  not  using  these  expressions, 
practically  implies  them,  and  describes  a relationship  be- 
tween the  believer  and  his  Lord  that  closely  resembles  that 
of  Christian  sonship.  The  equivalent  for  these  terms  in  all 
Islam  are  the  words  slave  and  master  ('abd  and  rabb). 
Even  the  thoroughly  devout  Moslem  feels  no  difficulty 
in  describing  himself  as  a slave  of  Allah,  just  as  Paul 
described  himself  as  the  doulos  of  Christ,  meaning  in  both 
cases  to  indicate  the  acknowledged,  absolute  right  of  the 
Master  to  deal  with  his  servant  as  may  please  Him,  with, 
at  the  same  time,  a full  reliance  that  that  dealing  will  be 
kindly,  loving  and  just.  But  for  all  this,  and  however  the 
mystic  may  try  by  devout  legend  and  exegesis  to  put  re- 
ligious meaning  into  those  words,  the  average  Moslem  does 
not  think  accordingly. 

Yet  it  is  striking  how  the  Johannine  doctrine  of  sonship  at- 
tracts the  Moslem  mystic.  In  spite  of  all  his  theological 
objections  to  the  use  of  the  terms  “Father”  and  “Son”  and 

80 


WHAT  CHRISTIANITY  MAY  ADD 


although  they  are  under  the  ban  and  unused  by  all  Islam, 
theological  and  religious,  it  is  precisely  the  Gospel  of  John 
with  its  teaching  of  the  uncreated  Word  which  most  of  all 
appeals  to  him.  Through  its  explicit  teaching  of  a universal 
brotherhood  and  of  the  divine  fatherhood  he  finds  expres- 
sion for  conceptions  which  have  been  long  and  deeply  felt. 

When,  then,  a Moslem  has  reached  the  conviction  that  all 
men  are  brothers  and  that  God  is  the  common  father  of  all, 
he  will  be  ready  for  self-sacrificing  service  to  mankind  as 
a whole  and  will  cease  to  be  indifferent  to  all  but  fellow 
Moslems. 

(5)  Freedom  of  Life  Under  the  Gospel. — When  general 
revivals  and  individual  conversions  occur  in  Islam — and 
they  have  occurred  and  do  occur  often — they  are  almost 
always  inspired  by  fear  of  the  hereafter.  It  is  even  true  in 
the  case  of  mystical  theologians  of  wide  and  deep  religious 
experience  that  they  have  at  first  been  driven  to  devoted- 
ness by  the  fear  of  hell  and  have,,  thereafter,  felt  con- 
strained to  live  a life  apart  from  the  world  in  order  to  be 
able  to  retain  their  religious  attitude.  Of  course,  there 
are  many  sincerely  devout  Moslems  who  live  in  the  every- 
day world;  but  a profound  religious  experience  in  Islam 
does  not  generally  send  the  recipient  back  into  the  world 
to  live  there  and  to  do  his  part  in  it,  but  rather  seems  to 
warn  him  to  separate  himself  from  all  that  is  not  specifi- 
cally and  clearly  religious.  The  believing  Moslem  who  lives 
and  works  in  the  world  may  be  said  to  hold  his  faith  in  a 
more  formal  way.  The  dervish  fraternities,  it  is  true,  recog- 
nize the  claims  of  this  world  by  admitting  tertiaries,  who  live 
and  work  in  the  world  and  yet  are  furnished  by  their  fra- 
ternity with  the  means  of  devotion  and  of  occasional  retreat. 
Notwithstanding  this  device,  the  division  in  Islam  between 
the  things  of  this  world  (ad-dunya)  and  of  the  world  to  come 
{al-dkhira)  is  deep  and  broad,  and  the  pious  meddle  with 
the  first  only  at  the  risk  of  their  eternal  damnation. 

To  those  taught  to  accept  this  distinction  the  Christian 

81 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


conception  of  the  perfect  freedom  of  the  service  of  Christ 
comes  like  a breath  of  fresh,  cold  air.  For  in  spite  of  the 
appearance  in  Christendom  of  these  same  phenomena,  the 
reasonableness  of  Christ’s  religion  has  never  been  long  held 
under  such  bonds.  The  life  of  Christ  in  the  Gospels,  and 
especially  in  the  Synoptics,  with  its  healthy  contact  with 
all  sides  of  life  and  its  solutions,  reasonable  and  yet  deep- 
cutting, of  the  recurring  problems  of  life,  makes  this  free- 
dom perfectly  evident.  The  mere  reading  of  the  Gospels 
establishes  the  true  significance  of  the  “Kingdom  of  Heav- 
en.” There  have  not,  of  course,  been  wanting  in  Christen- 
dom similar  tendencies  towards  separating  the  two  worlds, 
but  they  have  not  dominated  Christian  thinking. 

(6)  Freedom  of  Scientific  Investigation. — A student  of 
the  history  of  Islam  is  forced  to  note  that  time  and  again 
Moslem  peoples  have  experienced  renaissances  of  culture, 
literary  and  scientific,  which  have  never  endured  for  very 
long.  They  have  always  had  a certain  forced  character 
and  have  usually  grown  out  of  the  favor  of  ruling  princes 
or  of  dynasties.  The  great  example  of  this  is,  of  course, 
the  period  under  the  early  Abbasids,  but  they  arose  also 
under  the  Fatimids,  and  under  the  Spanish  Umayyads. 
Yet  Islam  has  never  been  able  to  show  any  definite  thread 
of  progress,  one  period  leading  to  another,  all  being  a part 
of  a steady  forward  drift. 

The  reason  for  this  regular  stoppage  of  such  revivals  is 
not  entirely  plain.  It  has  been  sought  at  different  points. 
Many  have  explained  it  by  the  predestinarianism  of  Islam. 
But  Protestantism  a century  ago  was  quite  as  predestina- 
rian  in  its  theology,  without  abating  its  intellectual  life. 
There  is,  however,  a distinction  to  which  religious  Islam 
has  always  held,  and  which  may  in  part  be  an  explanation. 
It  is  that  between  useful  knowledge  and  a knowledge  which 
cannot  at  once  show  a practical  purpose.  By  useful  knowl- 
edge Islam  means  that  which  is  useful  either  for  this  world 

82 


WHAT  CHRISTIANITY  MAY  ADD 


or  for  that  to  come.  Its  utilitarianism  has  therefore  a 
wide  scope,  but  it  is  still  utilitarianism.  If  a Moslem  can- 
not show  to  himself  that  a study  or  task  or  sport  produces 
specifically  useful  results,  either  for  his  life  here  or  for  his 
eternal  salvation,  then  it  is  held  to  be  better  for  him  to 
leave  that  interest  alone.  This  does  not  mean  the  complete 
avoidance  of  play  or  sport,  because  diversions  can  be  justi- 
fied on  the  ground  of  health  or  of  relaxation,  but  it  does 
mean  that  the  merely  interesting,  the  pursuit  of  disinter- 
ested curiosity,  should  not  be  cultivated.  In  consequence, 
all  scientific  investigation  has  to  justify  itself  to  Moslems 
by  the  immediate  production  of  some  useful  result.  The 
early  criticism  in  America  of  Benjamin  Franklin’s  experi- 
ments in  electricity  was  exactly  Moslem  in  type.  No  Mos- 
lem investigator,  however,  seems  to  have  hit  upon  Frank- 
lin’s reply,  “What  is  the  good  of  a baby?”  The  scientific 
babies  of  Islam  have  been  all  too  few.  The  Moslem  philoso- 
phers and  scientists  of  early  centuries  were  often  good 
pupils,  learning  eagerly  from  the  Greeks  and  Indians,  but 
they  seldom  added  anything  to  what  they  learned.  Mediae- 
val Europe  undoubtedly  owes  them  a debt,  as  the  first  link 
with  the  civilization  of  the  Greeks,  but  not  for  anything 
which  they  contributed  of  themselves. 

In  contrast,  the  practical  working  of  Christianity  has 
been  clear.  Christendom,  despite  its  occasional  narrowness, 
has  never  really  handicapped  intellectual  life  or  scientific 
investigation.  When  European  civilization  made  its  fresh 
beginning  with  the  Renaissance,  intellectual  life  was  fos- 
tered on  all  sides  by  the  Christian  Church.  There  have 
been  conflicts  between  so-called  religion  and  so-called  sci- 
ence, but  Christendom  has  always  recognized  that  the  world 
is  a subject  for  study  in  the  most  absolute  sense,  and  that 
it  is  man’s  duty  to  seek  to  fathom  its  mysteries,  and  to  make 
ever  clearer  its  workings  as  those  of  God.  Islam,  on  the 
other  han^  has  tended  to  admonish  the  faithful  to  take  that 


83 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


which  Allah  sends  to  them  without  considering  it  too  care- 
fully, The  world  for  Islam  is  the  mystery  of  Allah;  He 
only  knows  it  and  can  know  it  and  it  is  better  for  mankind 
to  avoid  too  curious  investigations.  In  this  one  respect 
Christianity  has  a vital  message  for  the  best  minds  of 
Moslem  countries. 

(7)  The  Right  of  All  to  Education. — The  natural  result 
of  the  tendency  described  in  the  preceding  section  has  been 
to  limit  technical  training  to  the  narrowly  useful,  and  in- 
tellectual training  to  theology  and  canon  law.  Consequently 
the  secular  sciences  and  their  technical  applications  have 
been  gradually  crowded  out  of  Moslem  higher  education 
and  reduced  to  the  standing  of  arts  and  crafts.  Still  more 
serious  has  been  the  fate  of  primary  education.  Centering 
around  the  study  of  the  Koran,  often  in  a purely  mechan- 
ical fashion,  primary  training  has  placed  all  its  weight  upon 
the  training  of  the  few  boys  who  have  been  likely  to  go 
on  to  university  studies,  that  is,  to  become  theological  or 
canon  lawyers.  The  great  mass  of  children  who  look  to 
no  such  distinction  have  been  neglected.  Their  intellectual 
discipline  and  the  development  of  their  powers  seem  never 
to  have  appealed  to  the  Moslem  mind.  The  conception  that 
the  intellectual  progress  of  a people  depends  on  the  intel- 
lectual stimulus  of  the  masses  from  whom  the  leaders  must 
come  has  played  no  part  in  Islam.  There  is  no  trace  in 
Moslem  literature  of  the  conception  of  the  essential  dignity 
of  the  village  school.  Rather  the  schoolmaster  is  always 
a butt  for  ridicule.  It  is  true  that  Islam  has  always  honored 
the  learned  man,  whether  a university  teacher  or  a private 
scholar,  but  it  has  never  honored  either  the  life  of  the 
common  school  or  its  teacher.  In  consequence  a snobbish 
spirit  prevails  among  the  learned.  Like  the  old  Pharisees 
they  say,  “This  people  that  knoweth  not  the  law  is  ac- 
cursed.” Christianity  has  a mighty  appeal  to  the  popular 
mind  in  Moslem  lands  through  its  demonstration  of  the 


84 


WHAT  CHRISTIANITY  MAY  ADD 


right  of  all  to  education  and  of  the  fundamental  importance 
of  the  primary  school. 

(8)  The  True  Place  of  Womanhood  in  Life.  — The 
woman  problem  in  Islam  goes  much  deeper  than  any  ques- 
tion of  polygamy,  concubinage  or  divorce.  It  begins  with 
the  attitude  of  Mohammed  himself  towards  women,  and 
works  itself  out  practically  through  the  application  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  imitation  of  the  Prophet.  Mohammed’s 
attitude  to  women  was  frankly  sexual.  This  set  a tone  for 
his  followers,  and  even  stamped  indulgence  with  religious 
approval.  In  consequence  even  asceticism  in  Islam  has 
not  been  extended  to  sex  and  the  place  of  women  in  Islam 
has  been  hopelessly  compromised.  The  first  generations 
of  Islam  witnessed  an  outburst  of  sexualism;  even  the  de- 
cent reserves  of  language  which  existed  in  the  old  pre- 
Moslem  poetry  vanished  after  Mohammed’s  day.  Early 
Moslem  writers  noted  this  fact  with  regret  and  speculated 
upon  its  cause.  But  there  can  be  no  question  that  the  real 
cause  was  the  personal  example  and  influence  of  Mo- 
hammed. This  fundamental  question  of  morals  is  one  of 
the  most  serious  problems  that  modern  Islam  faces.  Some 
Moslem  apologists  have  been  driven  to  the  curiously  in- 
verted conclusion  that  in  this  matter  Mohammed  is  not  to 
be  imitated,  because,  as  a prophet,  he  was  not  bound  by 
ordinary  rules. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  stress  the  contrast  of  the  Chris- 
tian position  which  recognizes  that  women  are  people 
among  the  people  in  the  world,  not  existing  simply  because 
of  and  for  their  sex,  and  that  they  should  contribute  their 
distinctive  share  to  social  and  to  public  life.  The  mission- 
ary cannot  lay  too  great  emphasis  upon  the  education  of 
girls.  If  true  wives  are  to  be  provided  for  the  young  men 
of  Islam,  it  can  only  be  done  by  educating  the  girls.  Other- 
wise whatever  education  may  be  given  to  boys  will  be 
almost  eliminated  in  social  and  family  respects  by  the 

85 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


hampering  and  degrading  influence  of  their  uneducated 
wives.  A very  great  part  of  the  continuity  of  a civiliza- 
tion and  perhaps  the  deepest  and  most  essential  part  is 
carried  by  its  women,  and  until  the  Oriental  woman  knows 
herself  and  has  found  her  proper  place,  Oriental  civilization 
will  be  crippled  and  discontinuous. 

(9)  Christianity  and  Childhood. — Islam  teaches  that  all 
children  are  born  Moslems,  but  afterward  their  parents 
pervert  them.  This  is  expressed  in  a tradition  from  Mo- 
hammed: “Every  infant  is  born  on  God’s  plan,  then  his 
parents  make  him  a Jew  or  a Christian  or  a Magian.”  ^ 
This  tradition  has  led  to  interminable  discussion  among 
theologians  and  canon  lawyers,  but  religious  Islam  has 
accepted  it  as  meaning  practically  that  “children  are  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven.”  What  they  really  understand  by  this 
is  that  Islam  is  the  natural  religion  and  that  the  uncon- 
taminated human  mind  is  Moslem.  This,  however,  is  dif- 
ferent from  maintaining  that  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is 
best  represented  by  the  child  mind  and  that  therefore  there 
must  be  in  children  along  with  the  promise  of  the  future 
a unique  dignity  and  appeal.  At  this  point  appears  Chris- 
tianity’s real  contribution  to  the  attitude  toward  children 
and  child-life. 

(10)  The  Significance  of  Suffering  in  Life. — No  religion 
solves  the  problem  of  the  existence  of  suffering  in  a world 
ruled  by  a just  and  merciful  God,  but  theological  Islam  is 
perhaps  the  most  relentless  of  all  in  the  unmerciful  logic  of 
its  statements  upon  this  point.  In  some  forms  it  even  uses 
the  problem  of  suffering  to  increase  the  unknowableness  of 
Allah.  The  Koran  calls  him  “the  most  merciful  of  those 
who  show  mercy.”  “But,”  says  the  Moslem  theologian, 
“experience  demonstrates  the  absurdity  of  that  statement 
in  its  literal  meaning.  Therefore  these  words  cannot  mean 
what  they  would  mean,  if  said  of  a man,  and  we  really  do 

1 See  article  Fitra  in  the  “Encyclopedia  of  Islam.” 

86 


WHAT  CHRISTIANITY  MAY  ADD 


not  know  what  they  do  mean.”  Christianity,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  not  so  logical.  It  admits  the  mystery  and  incorpor- 
ates it  in  its  religion  as  an  essential  part  of  the  experience 
of  the  world,  and  sanctifies  suffering  through  the  suffering 
of  its  founder  and  the  suffering  even  of  God  in  him.  Value 
and  meaning  are  thus  given  to  suffering  and  it  ceases  to  be 
simply  a horror,  becoming  a positive  element  in  life.  It  is 
true  that  we  do  not  know  why  it  is  there,  but  the  whole  drift 
of  Christian  thought,  beginning  with  the  example  of  Christ, 
is  to  accept  it,  to  use  it  and  to  know  that  it  can  be  accepted 
and  used.  The  mystery  of  the  Cross  and  of  the  suffering 
of  our  Lord  thereon  is  part  of  the  great  mystery  in  the 
whole  world,  and  the  example  of  the  patience  and  strength 
of  our  Lord  has  proven  potent  to  deliver  men  from  the 
power  of  sin  and  to  emancipate  them  from  the  fear  of 
suffering.  The  Christian  Church  has  even  taught  that  men 
can  fill  up  the  measure  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ  and 
by  that  means  have  fellowship  with  Him,  understand  Him 
and  do  some  part  for  others  with  Him.  Suffering,  in  a 
word,  in  Christianity  is  not  a thing  simply  to  be  endured, 
but  to  be  experienced  and  used,  and  in  it  the  human  and 
the  divine  can  come  into  closest  sympathy. 

(11)  The  Divine  Share  in  Human  Life. — In  Islam  the 
Divine  guidance  of  man  is  wrought  through  a book.  By  it 
Allah  commands,  forbids  and  instructs  mankind.  It  is  the 
word  of  Allah  addressing  man.  Islam  therefore  very  early 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  this  was  no  ordinary  book,  but 
that  there  lay  in  it  a mystery  and  that  it,  as  the  word  of 
God  to  mankind,  could  be  said  to  be  uncreated  and  eternal. 
When,  then,  the  Moslem  recites  it,  hears  it  or  remembers 
it,  it  is  as  though  that  uncreated  word  of  Allah  was  sound- 
ing in  his  ears.  Nevertheless,  it  is  to  him  an  unchanging 
revelation. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  revelation  of  God  to  man  in  the 
Christian  scheme  is  His  coming  in  the  person  of  Christ,  His 


87 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


living  among  men  in  the  human  Jesus  and  His  continual 
manifestation  in  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  Comforter,  the  in- 
terpreter and  guide  of  life.  Christianity  recognizes  that 
with  the  incarnation  there  began  a new  working  of  the 
Divine  in  human  life.  Islam  is  still  on  the  Old  Testament 
religious  basis.  God  is  outside  of  life,  although  constantly 
directing  it ; but  in  Christianity  he  has  had  and  still  has  that 
share  in  human  life  that  has  been  expressed  at  one  time  by 
immanence,  which  every  generation  must  express  for  itself 
and  for  which  our  generation  is  now  seeking  a word.  It 
is  true  that  the  mystics  of  Islam,  like  the  mystics  of  all 
times,  have  come  very  close  to  this  position,  and  on  the  basis 
of  religious  experience  have  taught  that  the  individual  soul 
can  be  and  is  guided  personally  by  Allah.  This,  however, 
is  in  paradox  with  the  fundamental  theological  position  of 
the  separation  between  Allah  and  his  world,  and  mystical 
Islam  has  found  no  systematic  way  of  solving  this  puzzle. 
But  lacking  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  they  tend  to  sway 
between  pantheism,  on  the  one  hand,  and  intellectual  agnos- 
ticism, on  the  other.  The  missionary  should  be  very  sure 
that  he  can  state  the  doctrine  of  the  Christian  Trinity  in 
terms  that  will  meet  this  Moslem  need. 

(12)  The  Communion  of  Saints. — As  the  government  of 
the  Moslem  states  became  gradually  infected  with  worldli- 
ness the  religiously-minded  in  Islam  withdrew  from  all  con- 
tact with  it,  regarded  the  taking  of  government  positions 
as  dangerous  for  the  welfare  of  their  souls  and  doubted 
gravely  the  religious  sincerity  and  honesty  of  all  salaried 
government  officials.  There  then  gradually  grew  up  the 
belief  in  the  existence  of  a sort  of  heavenly  board  of  ad- 
ministration. This  was  the  government  of  Allah  as  opposed 
to  that  of  those  worldly  princes  and  rulers.  The  members 
of  this  heavenly  board  were  believed  to  be  saints,  alive  and 
dead,  who  are  arranged  in  a kind  of  hierarchy,  the  head 
beine  the  link  between  God  and  the  world  and  the  adminis- 

88 


WHAT  IS  IN  COMMON 


trators  being  those  ordinary-appearing  men  who  went  their 
way  in  the  ordinary  walks  of  life,  but  were  really  the  saints 
of  Allah.  Those  saints  who  had  passed  away  but  were 
believed  to  reside  in  a personal  sense  in  their  tombs  were 
additional  links  between  God  and  the  world  and  their  inter- 
cession should  be  sought  and  might  be  hoped  for.  In  this 
fashion  Islam  built  up  in  a curiously  concrete  bureaucratic, 
governmental  form  a conception  of  the  communion  of  saints 
uniting  both  worlds  in  a fellowship  of  service  and  constitu- 
ting the  real  means  by  which  Allah  administers  the  world. 
A Moslem  in  trouble  of  any  kind  might  hope  that  his  trouble 
would  be  noticed  and  he  himself  relieved  by  the  action  of 
one  or  another  of  these  functionaries.  This  is  a beautiful 
conception,  but  it  is  not  so  helpful,  appealing  or  spiritual 
a conception  as  the  Christian  teaching  of ’the  communion 
of  saints  uniting  both  worlds  in  prayer  and  service  and  with 
their  prayers  for  each  other  ever  ascending  before  the 
throne  of  God.  The  one  is,  as  it  were,  a materialization  of 
the  other  and  the  missionary  should  know  how  to  use  the 
Moslem  conception  to  lead  to  the  broader  and  more  spiritual 
Christian  view  which  covers  all  men  and  is  separated  from 
conventional  machinery.^ 


X.  What  Christianity  and  Islam  Have  in  Common 

(1)  The  Unity  of  God  and  of  the  World. — It  may  hardly 
seem  necessary  now  to  stress  monotheism,  and  to  show  that 
Islam  and  Christendom  unite  in  at  least  a fragment  of  the 
creed  ‘We  believe  in  one  God.”  But  Christianity  has  some- 
times run  risks  of  tritheism,  and,  at  the  present  day,  one 
wing  of  Christian  believers  tends  somewhat  to  put  Jesus  in 
the  place  of  God,  and  another  wing,  the  more  philosophical, 
seems  adrift  toward  a kind  of  polydsemonism.  The  testi- 

1 Cf.  the  Sufi  hierarchy,  p.  73. 


89 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


mony  of  Islam,  then,  that  there  is  no  God  save  Allah  may 
still  be  in  point,  and  it  will  be  well  for  the  missionary  to  be 
sure  that  he  understands  exactly  what  Islam  means  by  that, 
so  that  he  will  know  how  far  he  can  follow  his  Moslem 
friends  in  the  first  and  most  important  half  of  the  Moslem 
creed. 

On  the  unity  also  of  the  world  he  will  have  to  learn  to 
distinguish.  He  will  agree  with  Islam  in  unifying  it  all  as 
the  creation  of  God  and  as  informed  throughout  by  a one- 
ness as  that  creation.  But  he  will  not  be  able  to  follow  the 
Moslem  in  his  attitude  of  helpless  wonder  before  the  created 
world.  His  Moslem  friends  will  say  — “Md-sha- Allah!” 
(“What  wonders  hath  Allah  willed!”),  and  will  stop  there. 
The  missionary  may  well  defend  the  right  and  necessity  laid 
upon  men  to  investigate  and  to  analyze  these  wonders. 

(2)  The  Reality  and  Personality  of  God. — Only  through 
contact  with  Islam  does  a missionary  learn  to  appreciate 
how  real  for  the  Moslem  is  the  personality  of  Allah.  This 
is  not  simply  philosophical,  that  is,  that  Allah  is  the  reality 
(al-haqq)  as  opposed  to  the  semi-  or  non-reality  of  created 
things,  but  it  is  an  absolute  feeling  of  Him  as  an  individual 
Person  behind  life  with  His  hand  upon  all  things,  a person 
on  whose  will  depends  from  moment  to  moment  the  exist- 
ence of  all  things.  If,  as  one  school  of  theologians  has 
taught,  Allah  were  to  take  His  hand  from  the  world  for  a 
moment,  it  would  drop  at  once  into  nothingness.  And  this 
overwhelming  personality  is  also  imagined  very  concretely. 
The  prophets  and  all  the  saints  had  known  Him  almost  face 
to  face.  Many  have  seen  Him  in  dreams,  all  the  pious 
hope  to  see  Him  in  paradise.  The  Hu!  Hu!  of  the  dervish  in 
his  ecstacy,  a cry  of  “He,  He,”  is  in  itself  a testimony  to 
this  overwhelming  sense  of  personality.  The  Koran,  too, 
is  full  of  anthropomorphic  details  about  Allah;  and  how- 
ever some  theologians  may  explain  them  and  may  warn 
against  psychological  comparisons  between  man  and  God, 

90 


WHAT  IS  IN  COMMON 


these  have  all  gone  to  make  still  more  real  the  Divine  per- 
sonality. It  is  true  that  for  the  Moslem  Allah  does  not 
mix  with  men,  as  God  is  represented  in  the  Old  Testament 
as  doing  with  Abraham  and  the  patriarchs,  and  that  Islam 
finds  the  resting  of  God  on  the  seventh  day  blasphemous 
and  His  “repenting  Him  of  the  evil”  impossible,  but  in 
other  respects  He  is  as  real  and  near  to  the  devoted  Moslem 
as  to  Moses  and  David.  This  the  missionary  will  gradually 
learn  to  appreciate  in  its  full  extent,  and  will  learn,  too,  to 
understand  how  man  can  adjust  himself  to  life  in  this  pres- 
ence and  be  not  so  very  much  affected  by  it  in  his  personal 
conduct. 

(3)  The  Sinful  Nature  of  Man. — For  Islam  man  by  his 
created  nature  is  sinful.  He  did  not  become  so  by  any  fall 
or  change,  but  being  made  of  clay,  he  could  not  be  anything 
else.  He  therefore,  cannot  perfectly  please  God.  Islam, 
in  fact,  accepts  this  sinful  nature  somewhat  as  a matter 
of  course,  and  relies  in  the  end  upon  the  forgiveness  and 
mercy  of  Allah.  The  difference  then  is  that  Pauline  Chris- 
tianity posits  something  of  the  nature  of  a Fall,  a sinful 
change  in  the  nature  of  man  from  his  created  nature,  but 
Islam,  while  equally  emphasizing  his  sinful  nature,  finds 
the  solution  of  the  problem  of  evil  in  the  material  out  of 
which  man  was  created. 

But  it  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  under  the  pressure 
of  the  admitted  fact  of  the  existence  of  certain  sinless 
beings,  Islam  has  shown  a tendency  to  fall  back  upon  an- 
other theory  of  the  origin  of  sin,  that  is,  that  sin  is  due 
to  the  infant  at  birth  being  touched  or  pierced  by  Satan — 
a kind  of  sinful  contagion  being  thus  conveyed.  In  this 
way  the  sinless  nature  of  Jesus  and  his  mother  can  be  main- 
tained, although  they  two  were  of  flesh,  for  Satan  was 
restrained  by  a miracle  from  touching  them  at  birth. 

Man,  therefore,  is  not  really  responsible  for  his  sinful 
nature  and  this  undoubtedly  affects  the  attitude  of  Islam 

91 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


toward  sin.  But  the  sin  is  there  and  must  be  repented  ana 
on  due  repentance  there  will  be  forgiveness.  Allah  is  merciful 
and  forgiving  and  He  loves  the  merciful  and  the  forgiving. 
But  this  necessarily  raises  the  question  of  what  repentance 
means  in  Islam.  The  only  safe  answer  is  that  it  means  as 
many  different  things  as  elsewhere.  Undoubtedly  there 
will  be  found  in  Islam  an  easy-going  feeling  that  Allah  is 
sure  to  forgive,  more  or  less  that  it  is  His  business  to  for- 
give. What  would  become  of  man,  it  is  said,  if  Allah  did 
not  forgive.  But  this  feeling  deepens  in  the  theologian  into 
a more  precise  analysis  of  what  Allah  may  require  from 
man  before  He  forgives.  Repentance  is  consequently  de- 
fined as  consisting  of  three  elements:  “confession  of  the 
sin,  compunction  for  it  and  determination  not  to  return  to 
it.”  ^ A missionary  must  be  on  his  guard  against  too 
sweeping  generalizations  in  regard  to  repentance.  Other- 
wise he  may  alienate  the  thoughtful  Moslem  with  whom 
he  is  dealing. 

(4)  Each  Man  Standing  Personally  Before  God. — While 
Islam  creates  in  the  Moslem  a strong  community  feeling  as 
one  of  the  people  of  Mohammed,  distinguished  in  that  from 
all  others,  yet  the  relationship  of  the  individual  to  God  is 
a purely  personal  one.  It  is  for  him  personally  to  accept 
the  guidance  which  God  offers  to  all  men  and  it  is  for  men 
personally  to  do  and  to  leave  undone  what  God  requires. 
He  may  seek  advice  as  to  details  and  about  difficult  cases, 
but  he  cannot  shift  off  his  responsibility  upon  another.  Any 
conception  of  a priesthood  standing  between  him  and  God 
is  entirely  abhorrent  to  Islam.  This  goes  so  far  that  Mos- 
lems find  strange  the  idea  even  of  the  Protestant  pastorate 
and  admit  no  special  relationship  to  the  officials  in  charge 
of  any  mosque.  They  are  simply  conveniences  through 
which  he  can  better  carry  out  his  own  personal  worship. 
The  only  individual  toward  whom  a Moslem  can  feel 

1 Beidhawi  on  the  Koran,  Sura  2,  v.  35. 

92 


WHAT  IS  IN  COMMON 


himself  standing  in  a peculiar  spiritual  relationship  is  the 
sheik  of  his  fraternity  house,  if  he  is  a dervish,  and  there 
the  relationship  is  of  teacher  and  pupil.  The  sheik  has 
instructed  him  in  sacred  things,  has  opened  his  spiritual 
eyes  and  led  him  along  the  path  of  the  mystic.  Therefore 
there  has  been  created  between  them  a relationship  that 
does  not  hold  between  any  others.  But  this  does  not  mean 
that  even  the  dervish  in  his  dhikr  does  not  stand  immedi- 
ately and  personally  before  Allah. 

In  the  eschatology  of  Islam  it  is  true  that  signs  of  a com- 
munity feeling  break  up  the  strict  personal  relationship. 
Each  man  has  his  “book”  of  good  and  evil  deeds  and  these 
are  individually  weighed  and  reckoned  in  order  to  deter- 
mine how  long  a time,  if  any,  he  must  pass  in  the  Fire, — 
which  for  the  Moslem  is  “purgatory,” — before  he  enters  the 
Garden.  However,  because  of  the  peculiar  relationship  of 
Mohammed  to  Allah,  and  because  also  of  the  feeling  that  it 
would  be  unseemly  for  the  Fire  to  touch  one  who  believes 
in  Allah,  there  are  traditions  which  maintain  that  Moslems 
will  be  admitted  to  the  Garden  immediately  after  the  judg- 
ment in  a body.  But  then  there  are  others  which  maintain 
quite  different  positions. 

(5)  That  the  Worship  of  God  is  a Comfort  and  Strength 
to  Man. — It  is  in  the  five  daily  acts  of  worship  (salat)  that 
man  most  peculiarly  stands  personally  before  God.  Worship 
for  Islam  is  thus  a paying  of  his  duty  on  the  part  of  man 
to  his  Lord,  an  act  of  respect  like  the  duteous  call  upon  any 
superior.  But  while  it  is  thus  an  act  of  homage,  it  has 
also  been  so  arranged  by  God  as  to  be  a comfort,  healing 
and  strength  to  man.  Islam  in  fact  believes  that  if  any 
one  with  an  open  mind  will  go  through  the  motions  of  this 
technical  worship,  it  will  affect  him  and  make  a believer  of 
him,  even  though  he  is  not  one  already.  It  is  true  that  the 
Moslem  theologians  have  had  trouble  in  explaining  why 
worship  consists  of  just  such  utterances  and  motions  of  the 


93 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


body.  But  the  current  explanation  is  to  refer  to  the  equally 
unknown  elements  in  the  prescription  of  a physician.  Just 
as  a patient  takes  what  a physician  prescribes  and  is  healed 
by  it,  so  man  should  go  through  these  motions  and  may  be 
sure  that  they  will  perform  their  perfect  work  in  him. 
Thus  it  should  be  taken  not  only  as  a daily  diet,  but  also 
for  strength  on  particular  occasions.  There  are  traditions 
from  Mohammed  and  from  his  immediate  followers  that 
tell  how,  when  they  were  troubled  by  anything,  such  as  a 
difficulty  or  a sorrow,  they  would  gather  strength  and  com- 
fort by  going  through  the  Salat} 

(6)  The  Possibility  of  Immediate  Intercourse  between 
God  and  the  Individual. — When  an  individual  man  thus 
stands  in  the  presence  of  God,  God  is  not  necessarily  a God 
afar  off,  but  is  very  near  to  the  worshiper  and  intercourse 
is  reciprocal.  It  is  the  paradox  of  Islam  that  while  Mo- 
hammed, on  the  one  hand,  seems  in  the  Koran  to  fix  an 
absolute  gulf  between  God  and  man  and  uses  phrases  that 
really  imply  that  God  is  unknowable,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
taught  and  practised  that  immediacy  of  intercourse  which 
is  the  mark  of  the  true  mystic.  Nor  did  he  keep  to  himself 
and  his  fellow  prophets  all  the  possibilities  of  revelation  and 
inspiration,  but  he  taught  that  God  could  reveal  himself, 
even  did  reveal  himself  to  all  men  in  some  degree.  Any 
man  might  hope  to  see  God  and  be  taught  by  him  in  dreams. 
“Dreaming,”  said  Mohammed,  “is  one  forty-sixth  part  of 
prophecy.”  Between  the  saints  {azvliyd)  and  Allah,  there 
is,  of  course,  still  more  immediate  and  frequent  intercourse 
and  the  saints  are  on  the  way  to  be  prophets.  The  essential 
difference  between  the  saint  and  the  prophet  is  that  the 
latter  has  received  a message  to  be  handed  on  to  others. 
Christianity,  then,  may  differ  with  Islam  as  to  the  precise 
character  of  sainthood,  but  they  are  at  one  as  to  the  immedi- 
ate working  of  God  in  the  human  heart  and  His  so  revealing 

^ For  an  analysis  of  the  beneficial  elements  in  worship,  see  Beidhawi  on 
Koran  II,  46. 


94 


WHAT  IS  IN  COMMON 


Himself.  Further,  Islam  lays  down  that  it  is  a duty  for 
man  to  love  God,  but  is  in  doubt  as  to  whether  it  may  fit- 
tingly be  said  that  God  loves  man,  and  if  that  is  said,  as 
to  what  is  the  meaning  then  of  the  word  “love.”  “For,” 
say  the  theologians,  “love  implies  a lack  in  the  lover  which 
the  beloved  must  supply  and  in  Allah  there  can  be  no  lack.” 
But  these  are  the  hair-splitting  queries  of  theologians;  the 
religious  Moslem  has  no  difficulty  in  describing  the  love  of 
God  for  man  and  the  beatitude  of  the  immediate  intercourse 
between  God  and  man.^ 

(7)  That  God  Has  Revealed  His  Will  to  Man  Through 
Men. — By  definition  a prophet  is  a messenger  sent  by  God 
with  a message  to  men,  and  God  has  chosen  to  use  human 
beings  as  his  messengers.  Angels  may  mediate  between 
God  and  the  prophet,  but  angels  are  supposed  to  come  to 
prophets  only.  Ordinary  men  could  not  endure  their  glory. 
Therefol'e,  God  has  in  His  mercy  made  use  of  flesh  to  teach 
flesh.  Some  theologians  have  illustrated  the  place  of  the 
prophet  by  comparing  him  to  the  cartilage  that  separates 
between  bone  and  flesh.  The  bone  could  not  be  nourished 
directly  from  the  flesh  because  of  the  difference  of  nature 
between  them,  but  the  cartilage  takes  up  the  nourishment 
and  passes  it  on.  So  the  prophet  takes  from  the  revealing 
angel  and  passes  on  to  man.^ 

(8)  The  Reality  of  a Judgment  and  of  a Life  to  Come. — 
This  was  one  of  the  cardinal  elements  in  the  original  teach- 
ing of  Mohammed.  Not  only  is  there  a God  who  is  ruling 
the  world,  but  He  will  hold  a great  assize  of  judgment  and 
thereafter  man  and  the  jinn,  as  lost  or  saved,  will  live  an 
entirely  different  kind  of  life  to  all  eternity.  This  judgment 
to  come,  therefore,  is  the  most  important  thing  in  life,  and 
all  man’s  endeavor  should  be  set  to  meet  it  successfully. 
Islam,  orthodox,  heretical  and  mystical,  is  “other-worldly” 

1 See  the  article  “Blessedness  in  Mohammedanism,”  Hastings’  “Encyclopsdia 
of  Religion  and  Ethics.” 

* Beidhawi,  Koran,  II,  28. 


95 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


to  the  highest  degree.  Wherever,  therefore,  a revival  has 
come  in  Islam  or  an  individual  has  passed  through  the 
process  of  conversion,  it  has  been  wrought  by  fear  of  the 
Fire.  This  holds  even  of  the  greatest  saints.  In  fact,  one 
of  the  greatest  weaknesses  in  Islam  is  the  absence  in  it  of 
the  broad,  healthy-minded  saint.  The  worldly-minded  may 
take  his  chance  of  escape  through  the  mercy  of  Allah  and 
enjoy  the  world,  but  it  seems  hardly  possible  for  the 
thoroughly  religious  Moslem  to  enjoy  the  world.  This,  of 
course,  has  appeared  also  in  some  phases  of  Christianity, 
but  is  not  essential  to  it,  and  is  strictly  opposed  to  the 
healthy-mindedness  of  Christ.  The  missionary  will  have 
to  be  on  his  guard  against  overemphasizing  the  fear  of  the 
consequences  of  sin  as  opposed  to  a shrinking  from  sin 
itself. 


XL  The  Method  and  Attitude  of  the  Missionary 
Approach  to  Islam 

(1)  The  Necessity  of  Varying  Methods. — It  must  be  al- 
ready clear  that  there  are  several  outstanding  types  of 
Moslems,  and  within  these  types  there  may,  as  with  Chris- 
tians, be  great  individual  variety.  The  argument  which 
arouses  one  Moslem  or  meets  his  need  may  have  no  eifect 
at  all  upon  another.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  for  the 
missionary  to  avoid  settling  on  one  method.  He  will  find 
that  almost  every  case  must  be  taken  by  itself.  But  it  is 
true  that  there  are  certain  types,  and  to  meet  the  need  of 
those  types  there  are  certain  definite  aspects  of  Christian 
truth.  These  may  not  be  the  aspects  which  appeal  most  to 
the  missionary  himself,  but  they  will  always  be  essential. 
It  is  precisely  here  that  the  practical  importance  for  the 
missionary  of  knowing  thoroughly  the  ideas  of  Islam  and 
the  psychology  of  the  Moslem  mind  appears.  If  he  has 


96 


THE  MISSIONARY  APPROACH 


not,  through  study  and  experience,  acquired  what  might 
be  called  a Moslem  side  to  his  brain,  he  will  not  be  able  to 
enter  into  the  difficulties  of  the  individual  Moslem  before 
him,  and  in  public  speaking  it  will  be  impossible  for  him  to 
establish  that  rapport  with  his  audience  which  is  the  secret 
of  all  persuasion. 

(2)  The  Primary  Necessity  to  Present  Christ. — The 
missionary  goes  as  a preacher  of  Christ.  But  Christ  has 
very  many  aspects,  and  the  question  for  him  before  each 
audience  and  with  each  individual  must  always  be  which 
aspect  will  most  immediately  and  effectively  present  the 
essential  Christ.  Three  methods  will  bear  emphasizing: 

(a)  The  Direct  Approach. — The  gospels  will  always  in- 
terpret themselves  and  will  present  Christ  to  the  Oriental 
in  a way  impossible  to  any  Occidental  interpretation.  The 
gospels  are  Oriental  to  their  core  and  Orientals  understand 
them.  The  missionary  therefore  may  consider  that  a great 
part  of  his  work  is  done  when  he  has  once  fairly  set  his 
Moslem  inquirer  face  to  face  with  Christ  in  the  gospels 
themselves.  One  man  may  care  more  for  one  gospel,  an- 
other for  another,  but  the  one  Figure  stands  out  in  all. 

(b)  Through  the  Prologue  of  John. — An  individual  case 
of  approach  is  to  be  found  in  the  prologue  to  the  gospel 
according  to  St.  John.  In  fact,  there  is  hardly  in  all  the 
Bible  another  passage  which  affords  so  simple  and  immedi- 
ate a development  from  Islam  into  Christianity.  As  verse 
after  verse  is  read,  the  Moslem  may  feel  that  some  of  the 
phrasing  is  a little  careless,  but  he  will,  at  the  same  time, 
assent  to  its  broad  truth.  Only  when  he  comes  to  the  great 
assertion : “And  we  beheld  His  glory,  the  glory  of  the  only 
Begotten  of  the  Father”  (John  1:14)  will  he  have  passed 
beyond  Islam. 

(c)  Through  PhiUppians  2:7. — Another  individual  case 
of  immediate  contact  is  found  in  Philippians,  2:7.  “Tak- 
ing the  form  of  a doulos.”  Here  the  Moslem  will  think  at 

97 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


once  of  the  passage  in  the  Koran  where  Christ  speaks  of 
himself  as  an  'abd,  a slave,  or,  as  we  might  render  it  broadly, 
a creature,  exactly  the  same  as  the  Greek  doulos.  The 
missionary  then  can  develop  what  Paul  meant  and  what  the 
Christian  Church  understands  by  the  use  of  this  term.  The 
whole  conception  of  the  serving  Christ,  of  how  he  humbled 
himself  for  our  sakes,  can  be  developed  from  it.  It  should 
be  noted  that  Islam  in  general  does  not  think  of  a prophet 
as  humble  or  as  serviceable  in  the  broad  way  of  Christian 
thought.  The  Moslem  conception  of  the  prophet  has  always 
been  that  of  the  ruler  and  dominator,  that  of  Moses,  in 
fact,  eliminating  his  meekness.  This  deeper  conception, 
then,  in  connection  with  Christ,  is  of  primary  importance, 
and  can  be  followed  up  further  by  the  fact  that  the  stories 
current  among  Moslems  exhibit  him  almost  uniformly  on 
the  side  of  the  helper  or  healer. 

(3)  The  Cosmic  Christ. — But  there  is  one  aspect  of 
Christ  which  has  such  close  parallels  in  Islam  and  is  so 
suggestive  for  Moslems  that  it  must  be  taken  by  itself. 
Christ  as  a great  personal  force  in  relation  to  the  whole 
world  rather  than  as  an  individual  meeting  the  needs  of 
separate  souls,  appeals  to  the  more  philosophical  and  mys- 
tical Moslem  mind.  With  them  as  with  us  there  are  many 
to  whom  the  problem  of  the  world  rises  as  a broad  and 
general  one.  They  desire  to  know  the  whence  and  the  why 
of  the  universe,  the  great  purpose  and  idea  in  it  all,  rather 
than  to  reach  any  strictly  personal  help  and  salvation. 
Their  peace  of  mind  is  found  in  seeing  the  world  as  a 
cosmos,  an  ordered  creation  with  an  intelligible  place  for 
themselves  in  it,  rather  than  any  saving  of  themselves  from 
the  power  and  penalty  of  sin.  It  is  to  such  minds  as  this 
that  the  prologue  to  the  Fourth  Gospel  comes  with  luminous 
clearness.  At  once  it  raises  in  their  minds  two  parallels. 
The  first  is  with  the  uncreated  quality  of  Allah  which  they 
call  kaldm  (see  p.  39),  that  quality  of  Allah  by  which  He 

98 


THE  MISSIONARY  APPROACH 


created  the  universe  and  which  found  its  earthly  expression 
in  the  Koran.  It  is  unnecessary  to  follow  out  the  details 
of  this  parallel,  but  one  detail  of  the  development  of  the 
Christian  position  should  be  made  clear  to  the  Moslem. 
It  is  that  the  “word”  in  John’s  Gospel  is  not  simply  “speech,” 
the  utterance,  i.e.,  of  the  Divine  thought,  but  is  the  Divine 
thought  itself ; that  logos  is  inadequately  rendered  by 
“word”  or  by  kalani  and  still  more  by  kalima,  an  “individ- 
ual, single  word.”  It  is  rather  the  equivalent  of  “reason” 
as  well  as  “speech.”  The  Moslem  finds  it  easy  to  posit 
behind  the  universe,  not  simply  an  uncontrolled,  unreasoned 
will  of  Allah,  but  a Divine  Reason  ordering  and  explaining 
the  creation. 

As  the  first  parallel  was  with  the  Athanasian  conception 
of  Christ,  so  the  second  is  with  the  Arian.  It  is  an  article 
of  faith  in  Islam  that  Mohammed  was  the  first  of  all 
created  beings  and  that  for  his  sake  all  the  rest  of  creation 
was  thereafter  produced.  This  belief  connects  with  the 
doctrine  of  the  “light  of  Mohammed” — that  appearance  on 
the  forehead  of  all  his  ancestors  in  the  direct  line,  an  out- 
ward sign  of  the  prophetic  personality  which  was  being 
passed  along  through  them.  These  ideas  are  not  Koranic, 
but  are  among  the  additions  which  the  syncretism  of  Islam 
adopted,  probably  under  Persian  influence.  The  parallel 
here  is  by  no  means  so  rich  in  meaning  as  the  first  and  will 
lead  at  once  to  a direct  clash  as  to  the  relative  positions  of 
Mohammed  and  Christ  in  the  scheme  of  things,  but  still  it 
is  very  close.  Through  it  the  Moslem  has  the  idea  of  a 
being  closer  to  Allah  than  any  other,  and  of  this  being  as 
a real  cause  of  the  universe. 

(4)  Redemption  From  Sin. — The  place  of  sin  in  Islam 
has  been  stated  above  (p.  77),  and  the  difference  between 
it  and  the  Christian  conception  has  been  stated.  Probably 
a preaching  of  salvation  as  a deliverance  from  the  tortures 
of  hell  would  appeal  most  nearly  to  the  average  Moslem. 

99 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


But  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the  Christian  missionary 
will  desire  to  make  this  declaration  quite  so  literally  and 
concretely  as  his  Moslem  audience  will  understand  it.  It 
will  be  necessary  to  emphasize  the  idea  of  redemption  from 
the  power  of  sin,  which  will  be  a new  idea  and  a distinct 
advance  for  the  majority  of  Moslems.  For  this  emphasis 
Paul’s  idea  as  developed  in  Romans  will  be  found  useful. 
But  the  missionary  will  need  to  make  sure  that  his  inquirers 
or  converts  do  not  stop  short  with  the  Moslem  part  of 
that  idea  and  that  they  go  on  to  understand  Paul’s  whole 
position.  The  phrase  “the  body  of  this  death”  (Rom.  7:24) 
and  the  allegory  of  the  potter  and  the  pots  (Rom.  9:21) 
might  be  accepted  by  a Moslem  without  any  grasp  of  the 
real  Christian  position. 

(5)  The  Simplicity  and  Clearness  of  the  Bible. — Every 
missionary  to  Moslems  has  discovered  that  the  testimony 
of  the  Bible  to  itself  is  truly  impressive,  and  they  have 
learned  also  by  experience  that  to  lead  a Moslem  to  study 
the  Bible  itself  with  an  open  mind  is  by  far  his  best  intro- 
duction to  Christianity.  The  infinite  variety  of  the  Bible 
plays  its  part  in  this.  It  may  be  the  figure  of  Christ  in 
one  or  more  of  the  gospels  that  appeals;  it  may  be  the  psy- 
chology of  Paul;  it  may  even  be  the  fascinating  stories  or 
the  clear  development  of  historical  narrative  with  one  king 
following  another  in  chronological  sequence.  The  mission- 
ary must  not  be  surprised  at  any  apparent  vagary  of 
interest.  Wherever  the  beginning  is  made,  it  nevertheless 
has  been  made.  It  is  true  that  the  Bible  also  has  great 
handicaps.  In  no  translation  can  it  possibly  ^ attain  the 
magical  influence  of  the  musical  cadences  of  the  Koran. 
Moreover,  there  is  much  in  its  frank  anthropomorphism 
that  might  repel  and  has  repelled  Moslem  readers.  But 
these  objectors  have  mostly  been  theologians  and  there  is 
enormous  evidence  that  the  masses  of  Islam  read  the  Bible 
eagerly.  The  only  question  for  the  missionary  will  be  what 


100 


THE  MISSIONARY  APPROACH 


part  of  the  Bible  to  present  to  each  individual  Moslem.  It 
will  be  a question  of  tact  or  opportunity. 

(6)  The  Devout  Life. — Every  missionary  comes  to  admit 
that  genuine  devotion  exists  in  Islam.  Whatever  we  may 
think  of  the  character  of  Mohammed,  the  fact  is  fixed  that 
he  was  devout.  And  devotional  exercises  therefore  have 
been  common  in  Islam  from  the  beginning.  The  mission- 
ary’s problem  will  be  how  to  make  the  transfer  from  these 
formal  exercises  into  Christian  devotion.  He  may  easily 
find  that  some  imitation  of  the  devotional  forms  of  Islam 
with  a Christian  content  may  be  necessary.  Moslem  con- 
verts sometimes  miss  in  Christian  religious  services  the 
fervid  ecstasies  of  the  dervish  dhikr.  The  singing  of  hymns 
and  praying,  either  formal  or  free,  cannot  completely  take 
the  place  of  the  more  emotional  devotions  of  dervishes,  so 
numerous  among  the  uneducated  masses  of  Islam.  This 
is  one  of  the  present  problems  of  missions  to  Islam  and 
should  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  by  the  missionary  as 
he  surveys  his  task,  although  it  is  also  true  that  the  dervish 
and  his  dhikr  are  viewed  by  the  educated  Moslem  only  with 
contempt.  In  Turkey  especially  the  dervish  is  too  often  a 
wandering,  greedy  impostor,  believed  to  be  capable  of  any 
sin.  There  and  in  Persia  many  of  them  are  admittedly  anti- 
nomian.  This  tendency  has  reacted  on  the  popular  estimate. 
On  the  other  hand,  religious  freedom  and  free  personal  de- 
votion are  of  the  very  essence  of  the  Mevlevite  and  Bek- 
tashite  positions,  and  much  is  to  be  expected  from  them  in 
the  reform  or  the  breakup  of  Islam. 

Another  point  of  contact  of  the  same  nature  is  the  use 
of  devotional  phrases.  The  Moslem,  as  he  walks  or  sits, 
repeats  to  himself  with  the  assistance  of  his  rosary  the 
ninety-nine  most  beautiful  names  of  Allah.  There  is  a 
tendency  amongst  Christians  to  shrink  from  such  supposedly 
mechanical  devotions,  but  their  being  mechanical  depends 
entirely  on  the  spirit  in  which  they  are  done.  There  can 

101 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


be  no  question  that  a missionary  will  come  very  close  to 
the  soul  of  a devomt  Moslem  simply  by  sitting  by  him  and 
exchanging  with  him  for  his  most  beautiful  names  of  Allah 
the  names  and  epithets  of  God  and  Christ  which  occur  in 
the  Scriptures.  In  such  intercourse  as  this  the  missionary 
will  learn  the  part  that  beauty  of  language  plays  in  Islam, 
and  will  be  stimulated  to  the  purifying,  polishing  and  per- 
fecting of  his  religious  vocabulary. 

(7)  Sympathy  with  Mystical  Islam.  — The  missionary 
will  find  that  his  contact  with  the  mystics  of  Islam  is  more 
immediate  and  sympathetic  than  with  all  other  Moslems. 
These  men  have  broken  with  the  stiff  orthodoxy  of  formal 
Islam.  Details  of  the  canon  law  mean  comparatively  little 
to  them.  They  interpret  all  rules  and  doctrines  in  the 
widest  way  and  believe  most  fixedly  in  the  “light  that 
lighteth  every  man.”  For  them,  therefore,  this  Christian, 
while  technically  he  is  an  unbeliever  and  will  necessarily 
go  to  the  h'ire,  may  yet  be  a person  of  religion  and  devo- 
tion. The  missionary,  therefore,  should  cultivate  intercourse 
with  such  men.  He  should  learn  their  methods  of  devotion 
and  read  their  books.  He  will  find  much  there  to  remind 
him  of  the  Golden  Legend  of  Medieval  Europe  and  of  the 
stories  told  of  the  early  Egyptian  hermits.  Perhaps  in  his 
actual  intercourse  with  the  mystics  even  these  hagiologies 
may  become  real  and  human  to  him.  The  Moslem  mystical 
literature  is  undoubtedly  the  most  human  side  of  the  Mos- 
lem theology,  and  in  it  the  Divine  spirit  has  most  clearly 
worked  with  the  Moslem  heart  and  mind. 

(8)  Answering  Theological  Questions. — It  is  coming  to 
be  recognized  that  controversy,  while  it  may  at  times  be 
necessary,  is  not  the  principal  part  of  a missionary’s  task. 
His  business,  first  and  always,  is  to  present  Christ,  and 
it  has  been  suggested  that  that  may  best  be  done  through 
the  Gospels  themselves.  But  the  time  will  come  when  an 
inquirer  will  begin  to  ask  questions.  These  will  differ  ac- 

102 


THE  MISSIONARY  APPROACH 


cording  to  his  knowledge  of  his  own  religion  and  theology, 
but  it  is  in  the  answering  of  these  questions  that  the  mis- 
sionary will  need  to  know  the  systematic  theology  of  Islam. 
That  is  not  a light  task  and  it  will  not  be  achieved  simply 
by  studying  the  Koran.  He  will  need  to  take  some  texts 
of  theology,  some  creeds  with  their  expositions,  and  master 
them  thoroughly.  In  doing  this  he  will  find  it  worth  while 
to  trace  out  their  parallelism  with  Christian  systems  of 
theology  and  to  note  the  divergencies.  For  example,  the 
parallel  of  the  stricter  theologians  with  Calvinism  will  be 
found  very  close  and  illuminative,  while  that  of  the  more 
mystical  theologians  with  the  Roman  system  as  stated  by 
Aquinas  will  be  closer.  This  latter  parallel  is  probably  not 
accidental,  for  it  seems  demonstrable  that  the  mystical  sys- 
tem of  Al-Ghazzali  influenced  Aquinas  indirectly  through 
Spanish  thinkers. 

(9)  The  Factor  of  Greatest  Importance. — In  conclusion 
it  should  be  said  that  in  dealing  with  Moslems  the  person- 
ality of  the  missionary  may  be  the  decisive  factor.  This 
can  be  viewed  on  two  sides.  First:  the  doctrine  of  love  by 
which  many  a Moslem  will  learn  to  distinguish  Christianity 
will  appeal  with  attractive  power  or  act  as  a powerful  de- 
terrent according  to  the  life  of  the  individual  missionary. 
If  the  missionary  is  so  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the 
people  that  he  works  heart  and  soul  for  their  physical,  in- 
tellectual and  spiritual  advancement,  a good  basis  is  fur- 
nished immediately  for  the  closest  relation  with  Moslems 
of  similar  ideals,  and  the  way  is  paved  to  the  breaking 
down  of  prejudice  and  opposition.  If  the  missionary’s  in- 
terest in  the  people  be  found  to  be  keen  and  sympathetic, 
leading  him  earnestly  to  seek  to  see  all  that  is  best  in  them, 
and  to  support  all  that  is  best,  no  matter  by  what  name 
it  may  go,  then  friendships  will  develop  which  will  give 
greater  opportunities  than  any  other  relationship  to  pre- 
sent to  the  people  Christ  in  all  his  attractiveness.  This 

103 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 

capacity  for  sympathy  with  the  people  and  for  real  friend- 
ship is  the  most  important  factor  in  the  equipment  of  the 
missionary.  Second:  from  the  very  nature  of  Islam  its 
adherents  are  men  and  must  be  met  by  men.  The  theology 
of  Islam  has  sometimes,  even  like  some  Christian  theolog- 
ical systems,  developed  intolerance,  bitterness  and  narrow- 
ness, but  it  has  also  fostered  dignity,  strength  and  manliness. 
These  qualities  the  missionary  must  seek  for  with  sympathy 
and  understanding.  He  has  no  need  of  posing  as  a patron 
of  an  irreligious  people.  Once  he  knows  them  well  he  will 
discover  the  absurdity  of  such  an  attitude.  He  may  even 
come  to  realize  that  they  have  a simplicity  and  fixity  of 
faith  which  he  would  fain  possess.  To  do  anything  with 
them,  then,  he  must  understand  them,  like  them,  trust  them, 
and  so  give  himself  to  them  with  all  his  heart  and  soul. 

(10)  The  Institutional  Approach  to  Islam. — While  it  is 
unnecessary  to  discuss  in  a detailed  way  the  approach  to 
Islam  through  the  social  and  religious  institutions  of  Chris- 
tendom, the  significance  of  this  approach  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.  Islam  is  a fortress  not  readily  battered 
down  by  artillery  fire;  it  can  only  be  captured  by  slow  and 
indirect  processes.  This  is  all  the  more  true,  because  Islam 
is  not  inert  nor  unagg^essive,  nor  lacking  in  an  institutional 
development  of  its  own. 

The  work  of  the  medical  missionary  and  of  the  hospital 
goes  far  in  breaking  down  prejudice  and  opening  the  way 
of  the  general  missionary.  These  talk  in  universal  terms 
a language  of  human  brotherhood  and  friendship  which 
not  only  invites,  but  forces  a response  in  the  hearts  of  the 
most  bigoted  or  ignorant. 

Closely  allied  to  medical  work  is  that  of  education.  The 
average  Moslem  is  densely  ignorant.  Islam  makes  little 
provision  for  the  relief  of  this  ignorance.  The  Christian 
school  is  highly  efficacious  in  dispelling  this  ignorance  and 
in  arousing  a healthy  ambition  for  progress,  which  is  in  the 
long  run  dangerous  to  orthodox  Islam. 

104 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  THE  MISSIONARY 


The  press  is  wonderfully  efficient  in  preparing  the  stony 
soil  of  Mohammedan  society  for  the  seed  of  Christian  truth. 
The  mission  presses  at  Cairo,  Beirut  and  Lahore  find  an 
uninterrupted  demand  for  all  the  good  literature  they  can 
produce. 

But  above  every  other  agency  in  opening  the  way  of  the 
missionary  to  Moslems  should  be  ranked  the  native  Chris- 
tians, who,  although  not  at  present  constituting  a missionary 
force,  have  great  latent  possibilities.  The  missionary  should 
not  overlook  the  cultivation  among  them  of  the  missionary 
point  of  view.  Such  Christians  speak  their  languages/  are 
capable  of  dealing  with  them  directly,  and  should  be  trained 
to  understand  and  appreciate  the  Moslem  mind.  The  de- 
spised Armenian  or  Copt  may  be,  nevertheless,  an  adept  in 
putting  truth  in  ways  to  which  a Mohammedan  can  react. 

XII.  The  Preparation  of  the  Missionary 

A perusal  of  the  preceding  pages  will  convince  any  can- 
didate for  missionary  service  among  Moslems  that  his 
course  of  preparation  will  be  arduous  and  exacting.  He 
does  not  get  ready  to  face  a simple  people  ready  to  drop 
their  superstitions  and  to  adopt  Christianity.  He  rather 
will  face  a people  full  of  religious  pride  and  led  by  men 
who  in  their  way,  at  least,  are  scholarly  and  sincere.  His 
task  will  be  exceedingly  difficult,  hence  the  most  thorough 
preparation  is  desirable. 

(1)  Along  Physical  and  Social  Lines. — Islam  fosters  a 
very  real  “pride  of  life.”  There  is  a poise,  a presence,  a 
dignity,  a haughtiness,  a capacity  for  scorn,  a strange  ca- 
pacity for  making  the  impact  of  personal  influence  felt, 
that  one  often  finds  among  Moslem  leaders.  Some  of  this 

1 It  is  to  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  phrasing  used  by  an  Armenian 
and  by  a Turk,  and  the  meanings  ascribed  by  them  to  many  words  and  phrases 
may  differ  widely.  A close  analogy  may,  perhaps,  be  found  in  St  Paul’s 
application  of  Greek,  whether  speaking  to  Jews  or  to  pagans,  to  express  Chris- 
tianity’s ideas.  Did  the  Jews  and  the  pagan  peoples  always  and  immediately 
understand  the  ideas  involved  in  those  new  usages? 

105 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


is  a matter  of  religious  training,  a scorning  of  unbelievers; 
some  of  it  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  hold  themselves 
above  the  races  subject  to  them,  but  in  part  it  is  physical. 
The  leaders  of  Islam  have  all  been  described  as  men  of 
splendid  physical  development.  Colorless  and  savorless 
characters  v^ill  not  gain  the  respect  and  confidence  of 
Moslems;  missionaries  ought  to  be  men  whose  influence 
will  tell,  search  and  penetrate.  While  such  influence  does 
not  necessarily  accompany  physical  strength,  yet  personal 
presence  and  poise  of  personality  contribute  richly  to  the 
desired  end. 

The  importance  of  social  grace  and  courtesy  in  dealing 
with  Mohammedans  can  scarcely  be  overemphasized.  The 
need  for  emphasis  on  this  point  grows  in  part  out  of  our 
naturally  brusque  and  direct  Western  ways  which  constantly 
offend  the  Oriental,  and  in  part  out  of  our  national  lack 
of  discipline  in  deferring  to  others.  When  arriving  on  the 
field,  it  will  be  well  to  heed  Rice’s  suggestions,  “It  is  well 
worth  while  to  endeavor  to  acquire,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
polite  forms  of  speech  used  by  the  natives  of  the  country 
in  their  intercourse  with  one  another.”  But  long  before 
leaving  the  homeland,  the  prospective  missionary  to  Mos- 
lems will  do  well  to  give  heed  to  the  little  amenities  of  life 
which  make  for  courtesy,  grace,  thoughtfulness  for  others, 
Christian  kindliness  and  true  Christlikeness. 

(2)  Along  Intellectual  Lines, — Here  a plea  should  be 
made  for  thoroughness.  It  is  not  so  much  a question  of 
how  much  territory  the  student  covers,  as  it  is  the  acquiring 
of  knowledge  in  a way  that  makes  it  an  instrument  ready 
for  instant  use  in  later  years.  The  reasoning  powers  need 
to  be  developed  to  enable  the  future  missionary  to  cut  to 
the  heart  of  his  subject,  to  avoid  becoming  entangled  in 
false  reasonings  and  to  be  enabled  always  to  set  forth  his 
conceptions  of  truth  in  clear  and  forceful  form.  The  value 
of  the  study  of  logic  will  be  manifest;  it  is  the  strongest 

106 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  THE  MISSIONARY 


weapon  of  the  defender  of  Islam,  In  philosophy,  Platon- 
ism and  Neo-Platonism  are  to  be  recommended  in  outline  at 
least,  for  Islam  in  certain  periods  absorbed  many  elements 
from  Neo-Platonism.  Nor  is  the  fundamental  value  of 
all  philosophical  study  to  be  lost  sight  of : nothing  perhaps 
is  so  productive  of  that  elasticity  of  mind  which  gives  due 
consideration  to  an  opponent’s  viewpoint  and  makes  a 
sympathetic  dealing  with  it  possible.  The  sciences  provide 
much  valuable  information  concerning  the  facts  of  the 
physical  world  which,  though  often  unappreciated  by  the 
Oriental  Moslem,  serves  as  an  argument  at  the  very  point 
where  Islam  is  weakest.  The  study  of  sociology  should 
have  a large  place  in  the  preparation  of  the  student  for 
future  life  work  among  the  Moslems.  A facile  use  of 
German  for  reading  important  works,  alone  available  in 
German  and  dealing  with  the  problems  of  Islam,  may  be 
added  to  the  list  of  requirements  for  indirect  preparation. 

(3)  Along  Spirittial  Lines. — Christian  influence  is  not 
a trick,  but  a life;  fundamentally  a question  not  of  method, 
but  of  spiritual  attainment.  No  man  can  lift  men  spiri- 
tually beyond  his  own  spiritual  height.  The  supreme  con- 
sideration, therefore,  is  that  the  young  missionary  shall 
possess  a genuine  spiritual  experience.  To  know  God,  to 
be  conscious  of  His  being  and  power,  to  have  dealt  directly 
with  Him,  to  have  talked  with  Him  and  to  feel  that  He 
also  has  replied,  to  know  Christ  and  to  be  following  his 
leadership,  to  rejoice  in  personal  salvation  and  personal 
fellowship  with  God;  these  are  fundamental  requirements 
for  all  missionary  service,  but  preeminently  for  him  who 
would  deal  with  Moslems.  To  the  Moslem’s  consciousness 
of  God’s  presence  and  reality  such  an  experience  opposes 
a conception  of  God  which  is  holier,  truer  and  purer  and 
which  lends  itself  after  all  more  really  to  the  consciousness 
of  God’s  reality  and  nearness  than  does  the  Moslem  con- 
ception of  Allah, 


107 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


Add  to  this,  uprightness  of  life  and  conduct.  On  the 
Moslem,  disassociating  too  constantly  religious  experience 
and  moral  conduct,  nothing  makes  a profounder  impression 
than  a religious  profession  backed  up  by  blameless  integrity 
of  character.  Absolute  integrity  was  the  secret  of  the  power 
which  was  possessed  by  the  Lawrences  of  the  Punjab  or 
by  Gordon  of  Khartum,  and  the  basis  of  the  influence 
which  their  lives  exerted. 

Unselfishness,  pure  human  love,  disinterestedness;  these 
are  Christian  virtues  that  are  sorely  needed  and  severely 
tested  where  Christian  men  and  women  undertake  to  lift 
Moslem  men  and  women  to  a knowledge  of  Christ.  There 
will  be  need  for  the  root  impulse  of  genuine  love,  though 
guided  by  wisdom  and  judgment  so  that  love  may  have  its 
widest  manifestation,  its  farthest  outreach,  and  its  most 
abiding  influence. 

A life  of  prayer  should  characterize  every  prospective 
missionary  to  Islam.  It  is  of  little  value  to  criticize  the 
formality  of  Moslem  prayer  unless  over  against  it  is  set 
a really  adequate  devotion  to  prayer.  The  prospective  mis- 
sionary may  well  ask  himself  whether  his  prayer  life,  if 
laid  bare  (and  its  ultimate  discovery  to  others  is  not  likely 
to  be  long  delayed),  might  fairly  claim,  in  its  measure  as 
well  as  its  character,  to  illustrate  the  higher  gospel  which 
he  preaches  of  God’s  readiness  to  draw  near  unto  men. 
Furthermore,  there  is  no  world  to  which  a missionary  may 
go  where  the  difficulty,  the  apparent  impossibility  of  his 
missionary  task,  constitutes  so  distinct  a challenge  to  prayer 
as  in  the  Islamic  fields. 

The  Moslem  loves  and  reverences  the  Koran;  he  listens 
by  the  hour  to  its  readings;  he  memorizes  whole  pages  of 
it,  often  the  whole.  Dare  the  Christian  missionary  be  less 
reverent  with  his  Bible  or  be  less  a master  of  its  teachings? 
He  must  go  farther.  Only  as  the  Sacred  Scriptures  are 
found  to  be  a pathway  by  which  he  finds  his  way  into 


108 


STUDIES  OF  SPECIAL  VALUE 


the  presence  of  God,  only  as  they  serve  as  a spiritual  tele- 
phone over  which  he  hears  the  living  voice  of  a living  God 
speaking  to  him  individually;  only  so  will  the  Bible  retain 
its  rightful  place  in  his  life  throughout  the  years  and  be- 
come his  most  useful  tool. 

(4)  In  General. — One  of  the  best  ways  of  gaining  a true 
perspective  and  a real  enthusiasm,  along  with  definitely 
helpful  ideas  regarding  the  real  work  of  a missionary  among 
Moslems,  is  for  the  candidate  to  lose  no  chance  of  consulta- 
tion and  of  acquaintance  with  actual  missionaries  from  the 
Moslem  field.  Such  an  experience  will  give  reality  and 
vitality  to  his  plans,  will  help  him  to  avoid  many  difficulties 
and  will  direct  his  attention  to  unrealized  possibilities.  At 
the  same  time,  the  candidate  should  remember  that  he  has 
his  own  life  to  live  and  his  own  work  to  carry  through.  He 
needs  a good  start  rather  than  a carefully  adjusted  scheme 
for  a series  of  years. 

A good  missionary  finds  abundant  use  for  all  the  learning 
he  can  acquire  of  the  sort  suggested  in  this  report;  he  will 
find  good  advice  exceedingly  useful,  yet,  after  all,  his  su- 
preme need  is  a genuine  missionary  passion  directed  by 
love.  Without  it  no  one  can  succeed  in  the  most  complete 
sense;  with  it  every  element  of  culture  or  training  finds  its 
proper  place,  and  initiates  a long  career  of  sacrificing  service. 


XIII.  Studies  of  Special  Value  to  One  Who  is  to  be 
A Missionary  to  Moslems 

The  following  lists  are  intended  to  suggest  the  lines  of 
study  which  a missionary  student  of  Islam  might  well  take 
up  in  the  course  of  his  career.  They  are  not  exhaustive, 
but  will  serve  to  guide  the  judgment  of  the  candidate  or 
of  the  junior  missionary.  Those  general  studies  which  are 
common  to  missionary  preparation  for  all  fields  and  for 


109 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


every  type  of  service  have  been  omitted,  since  they  are 
adequately  discussed  in  reports  already  issued. 


1.  To  be  Pursued  at  College  or  at  a Training  School. 

Public  speaking  and  debate. 

Moslems,  especially  in  India,  like  public  discussion.  Every  aggres- 
sive missionary  is  drawn  into  it  more  or  less.  He  is  wise  who 
becomes  able  to  stand  on  his  feet  and  think  and  argue. 

Formal  logic.  * 

The  Moslem  teacher  has  a logical  mind  and  uses  closely  reasoned 
argument. 

Psychology,  Philosophy  and  Ethics. 

The  average  Moslem  learned  man  is  very  much  like  a mediaeval 
schoolman.  Where  a course  on  Mediaeval  Psychology  is  offered, 
it  will  be  worth  while  to  take  it. 

German  and  French. 

One  who  dwells  in  the  Near  East  finds  these  languages  of  great 
value,  French  for  speaking,  German  for  studying.  To  the  serious 
student  of  Islam  they  are  almost  indispensable. 

Ethnology. 

This  will  introduce  the  student  to  the  mixed  Moslem  world  of  today. 

2.  To  be  Pursued  at  the  Professional  or  Graduate  Training 

School. 

Hebrew  and  New  Testament  Greek. 

The  Mohammedan  scholar  has  a greater  respect  for  the  missionary 
who  knows  his  own  Scripture  in  the  original  tongues.  Moreover, 
Hebrew  affords  a natural  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  Semitic 
mind  and  of  the  Arabic  language.  • 

The  principles  and  methods  of  the  historical  study  of  the  Bible. 

These  will  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  Moslem’s  attitude  to  his 
own  scriptures. 

Early  Church  History  through  the  great  Christological  contro- 
versies and  the  development  of  the  Eastern  Church. 

To  understand  the  beginnings  of  Mohammedanism  the  student  must 
be  acquainted  with  the  history  of  the  first  six  centuries. 

Christian  Apologetics. 

The  History  of  Christian  Missions. 

Mysticism:  Christian  and  Non-Christian. 

A grounding  in  Christian  mysticism  with  a study  of  the  mystical 
consciousness  will  prepare  the  student  to  understand  the  Moslem 
mystic. 

The  Comparison  of  Religions. 

Islam  is  a very  complex  affair  and  needs  to  be  studied  in  the  light 
of  all  religious  phenomena. 

no 


STUDIES  OF  SPECIAL  VALUE 


3.  To  be  Pursued  during  the  Period  of  Specialization. 

Classical  Arabic  with  some  reading  in  the  Koran. 

Phonetics  with  especial  reference  to  the  Semitic  languages. 

The  Koran  in  English  compared  with  the  New  Testament. 

The  antecedents  and  early  history  of  Islam. 

The  comparative  study  of  Christian  and  Moslem  theology. 

The  comparison  of  the  religious  thinking  of  Islam  with  that  of  the 
Roman  system  of  Aquinas,  and  of  Islam  and  Calvinism  will  be 
especially  helpful  to  the  student  of  Moslem  theology. 

The  political  and  social  problems  of  the  Moslem  land  to  which 
the  candidate  is  to  go. 

Modern  developments  in  Islam ; tendencies,  sects  and  religious 
orders. 

The  missionary  approach  to  Islam : points  of  contact,  divergence, 
etc. 

The  history  of  Christian  missions  in  the  country  to  which  the 
candidate  is  to  go. 

4.  To  he  Pursued  during  the  First  Period  of  Active  Mis- 

sionary Service. 

The  thorough  mastery  of  the  vernacular  of  the  people  in  the  dis- 
trict to  which  the  missionary  goes. 

The  reading  of  periodical  and  popular  literature  in  this  vernacular. 
The  study  of  the  Koran  in  the  Arabic. 

The  literature  of  Islam. 

The  intensive  study  of  the  Islam  of  the  missionary’s  own  field. 

A study  which  takes  into  account  the  modifications  due  to  environ- 
ment and  the  development  due  to  surrounding  religions. 

The  study  of  the  Moslem  controversy  with  Christianity. 

5.  To  he  Pursued  during  the  First  Furlough. 

Reading  in  the  standard  Arabic  grammarians  and  interpreters  and 
in  literature. 

Exercises  in  writing  Arabic. 

A study  of  the  leading  Moslem  creeds. 

Hebrew  and  Rabbinical  history  and  thought  from  500  B.C.  to 
550  A.D. 

A comprehensive  survey  of  world-wide  Mohammedanism. 

Ill 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


A survey  of  missionary  methods  used  with  Moslems. 

A review,  as  far  as  feasible,  of  philosophy,  ethics  and  theology, 
so  as  to  become  adjusted  to  their  progress. 

6.  Themes  for  the  Permanent  Attention  of  a Missionary 
to  Moslems. 

The  accurate  rendering  of  the  Koran  into  the  vernacular  of  his 
district. 

The  adaptation  of  the  essential  Christian  message  to  the  Moslem 
mind  and  heart. 

The  vital  forces  in  Islam  and  its  future  contribution  to  Christianity. 

Islam  as  a true  Moslem  sees  and  feels  it. 

The  animistic  element  in  Islam. 

The  attitude  of  the  Christianized  Moslem  to  Mohammed. 

The  development  of  Moslem  society. 

XIV.  The  Bibliography  of  Islam 

The  following  list  of  books  has  been  prepared  with  the 
needs  of  the  thoughtful  student  of  Islam  in  mind.  It  in- 
cludes many  titles  which  will  be  out  of  the  reach  of  the 
average  missionary,  but  none  about  which  it  would  not  be 
well  for  him  to  have  some  general  knowledge.  In  the 
sections  which  follow  the  bibliography  the  most  useful  and 
essential  volumes  are  indicated.  The  most  complete  biblio- 
graphy for  the  Koran,  for  the  Traditions  and  for  Moham- 
med is  in  Parts  10  and  11  of  Chauvin’s  Bibliographie  Arabe. 
Every  missionary  library  on  Islam  which  aims  at  working 
completeness  would  wisely  include  at  least  these  two  Parts. 

A.  SOURCES  (MAINLY  IN  TRANSLATIONS) 

1.  Al-Baghawi.  Masabib  as-sunna.  Many  Oriental  editions. 

A large  and  miscellaneous  collection  of  traditions  without  asnad.  For  its  place  and 

importance,  see  Moslem  World,  July,  1916,  p.  309. 

2.  El-Beidawl.  Commentary  on  the  Koran.  Best  edit,  by  Fleischer,  Leipzig, 

1846-48.  There  are  also  Oriental  editions,  some  with  super-commentary. 

A universally  respected  commentary  in  Arabic  on  the  Koran,  exegetical,  theological, 

philological  and  historical.  Valuable  also  in  the  study  of  Arabic. 

112 


THE  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  ISLAM 


3.  EI-Bukharl.  Les  Traditions  Islamiques.  Translated  by  O.  Houdas  and 

W.  Marcais.  Four  vols.  Paris,  Leroux,  1903-14. 

There  is  a European  edition  of  the  original  Saliih  by  Krehl  and  Juynboll  and  many 
Oriental  editions,  some  with  super-commentaries. 

4.  Fadl,  Mirza  abu-1.  The  Quran : Arabic  text  and  English  translation.  Two 

vols.  Allahabad,  Ashgar,  1911. 

A literal  translation  by  a Moslem,  done  with  care. 

5.  Fluegel,  G.  Corani  Textus  Arabicus.  Pp.  viii,  529.  Leipzig,  1881. 

This  edition  of  the  Koran  in  Arabic  dates  from  1834  but  remains  the  standard  edition 
for  scholarly  use.  Ofteti  reprinted.  The  edition  by  Redslob  should  be  avoided,  since 
the  verses  are  not  numbered.  The  missionary  will  also  require  an  Oriental  edition 
fcr  public  use. 

6.  Al-Ghazzall.  ad-Dourra  al  Fakhira.  Arabic  and  French  translation  by 

L.  Gautier.  Pp.  200,  Geneva,  1878. 

An  important  work  for  the  student  of  Moslem  eschatology. 

7.  Al-Hanifi,  AH  al-Marghinani.  al  Hedaya  fil-furu‘.  Translated  by  Charles 

Hamilton,  1870. 

The  standard  digest  in  English  of  Hanafite  canon  law. 

8.  Ibn  Hisham.  Edit,  by  Wiistenfeld  with  indices.  Also  Cairo,  A.H.  1295. 

A standard  life  of  the  Prophet  in  Arabic  based  on  ibn  Ishak  (A.H.  151).  It  was 
translated  into  German  by  Gustav  Weil  in  1864,  2 vols.,  Stuttgart. 

9.  Hitti,  P.  K.  The  Origins  of  the  Islamic  State  (Columbia  University 

Studies).  Vol.  I.  Pp.  578.  New  York,  Longmans,  1916. 

A good  translation  with  notes  of  a part  of  al-Baladhuri’s  Futuh  al-Buldan. 

10.  Hujwirl,  ‘AH  b.  ‘Uthman  al-Jullabi.  The  Kashf  al-Mahjub,  the  oldest 

Persian  Treatise  on  Sufiism.  Pp.  xxiv,  447.  Translated  by  R.  A. 
Nicholson.  London,  Luzac,  1911. 

A very  important  treatise  on  mystical  religion. 

11.  Jalalu’d  Din,  The  MesnevI,  Book  I.  Translated  by  J.  W.  Redhouse. 

(Triibner’s  Oriental  Series.)  Pp.  290.  London,  Triibner,  1881. 

The  advantage  in  this  translation  of  the  first  book  of  the  Mesnevi  is  that  there  is 
prelixed  a sort  of  Acts  of  the  Apostles  of  the  Mevlevi  dervish  fathers,  translated  from 
Turkish  and  giving  a good  picture  of  the  beliefs  and  practices  of  the  fraternity.  There 
is  another  translation  by  Whinfield,  London,  1898.  The  second  book  was  translated 
by  C.  E.  Wilson,  London,  1910. 

12.  Mathews,  A.  N.  The  Mishkat  ul  Masabih.  Calcutta,  1809. 

The  only  English  translation  of  this — or  of  any — extensive  collection  of  Moslem  tradi- 
tions. A very  rare  and  expensive  book. 

13.  Palmer,  E.  H.,  translator.  The  Qur'an  (Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  Vols. 

VI,  IX).  Two  Vols.  Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1880.  Also  in  one 
volume. 

The  best  idiomatic-,  spirited,  rhythmical  version  of  the  Koran,  but  disfigured  by  strange 
lapses  of  care.  Has  a rather  poor  historical  introduction  and  a useful  abstract  of 
contents. 

14.  Patton,  W.  W.  Ahmed  ibn  Hanbal  and  the  Mihna.  Pp.  208.  Leyden, 

Brill,  1897. 

A valuable  monograph  bearing  on  the  attempt  of  al-Ma’mun  to  force  the  Mutazilite 
doctrine  of  the  creation  of  the  Koran  on  Islam  and  on  the  orthodox  opposition  of 
Ibn  Hanbal. 

15.  Ragg,  Lonsdale  and  Laura.  The  Gospel  of  Barnabas.  Oxford.  Claren- 

don Press,  1907.  Italian  text  with  English  translation. 

Inserted  because  of  the  use  made  of  this  gospel  by  Moslem  apologists. 

16.  Rahmat-Ullah.  Idhhar  (Izhar)  ul-Haqq.  Translated  from  the  Arabic 

into  French  by  P.  V.  Carletti.  Two  Vols.  Paris,  Leroux,  1880. 

A Moslem  reply  to  Pfander’s  Mizan-al-haqq. 

113 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


17.  Rodwell,  J.  M.,  translator.  The  Koran  (Everyman’s  Library).  Pp.  506. 

London,  Dent. 

^ Valuable  for  indicating  the  chronological  order  of  suras,  thus  showing  in  a broad  way 
the  sequence  of  ideas,  The  most  readable  Koran  translation  for  a beginner,  but  to  be 
used  with  caution. 

18.  Sale,  G.,  translator.  The  Koran.  Many  editions.  A good  one  in  the 

Chandos  Classics.  London,  Warne  and  Co. 

A translation  still  valuable  for  its  full  commentary.  It  is  based  on  Maracci  and  ap- 
peared first  in  1734.  All  later  translations  have  been  affected  by  it. 

19.  El  Zamakhshari.  Commentary  on  the  Koran.  Two  Vols.  Cairo.  Also 

an  edition  by  Nassau  Lees  in  the  Bibliotheca  Indica. 

A Mutazilite  commentary  in  Arabic  on  the  Koran,  basing  the  exegesis  on  close  philolo- 
gical work  with  details  of  grammar.  The  basis  of  El  Beidawi. 


B.  HISTORY  AND  LITERATURE  OE  ISLAM 


20.  Ali,  Syed  Ameer.  The  Spirit  of  Islam.  Pp.  lix,  440.  Calcutta,  Kegan 

Paul,  1902. 

A clever  though  historically  inaccurate  survey  of  Mohammed’s  life  and  work  and  of 
the  development  of  Islam  by  an  English-educated  Moslem,  who  inclines  toward 
rationalism. 

21.  — The  History  of  the  Saracens.  Pp.  368.  London,  Macmillan,  1899. 

22.  Arnold,  T.  W.  The  Preaching  of  Islam.  Pp.  xvi,  467.  Second  revised 

edit.  London,  Constable,  1913. 

A brilliant  book  of  great  value  but  incorrect  in  its  overemphasis  of  preaching  as  a 
method  of  promulgating  Islam  and  in  minimizing  the  extent  of  armed  invasion  as  a 
factor  contributing  to  the  propagation  of  Islam. 

23.  Broomhall,  M.  Islam  in  China.  Pp.  332.  London,  Morgan  and  Scott, 

1910. 

Discusses  the  history  of  Islam  in  the  Chinese  empire,  the  present  Mohammedan  popula- 
tion and  the  problems  of  their  evangelization.  Scientific,  critical,  based  on  thorough 
investigations,  and  reliable. 

24.  Caetani,  Leone.  Annali  dell’  Islam,  Rome. 

A critical  reconstruction  of  the  early  history  of  Islam  from  the  existing  evidence.  A 
monumental  work  for  the  use  of  specialists. 

25.  — Chronographia  Islamica.  London.  Williams  and  Norgate,  1913. 

An  abridgment  of  the  preceding. 

26.  Cambridge  Mediaeval  History.  Vol.  II.  London,  Cambridge  University 

Press,  1913. 

Contains  important  articles  on  “Rise  of  the  Saracens,**  and  on  the  “Foundations  of  the 
Western  Empire.** 

27.  Caussin  de  Perceval,  A.  P.  Essai  sur  I’Histoire  des  Arabes  avant  I’lslam- 

isme,  etc.  Three  vols.  Paris,  Geuthner,  1902. 

A reprint  of  the  original  edition  of  1847.  A mine  of  generally  reliable  information 
concerning  the  pre-Islamic  Arab  kingdoms  and  their  union  under  Mohammed  and 
Abu-Bekr. 

28.  Clouston,  W.  A.  Arabian  Poetry.  Pp.  Ixxii,  472.  Glasgow,  1881  (rare). 

Contains  a choice  collection  of  Arabian  poetry. 

29.  Creasy,  Sir  Edmund  S.  History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks.  Pp.  xvi,  558. 

New  York,  Holt,  1877. 

30.  Dozy,  R.  P.  A.  Essai  sur  I’histoire  de  I’islamisme.  Translated  from  the 

Dutch  by  Victor  Chauvin.  Leyden,  1879. 

A useful  introduction, 


114 


THE  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  ISLAM 


31.  Eliot,  Sir  Charles,  (“Odysseus”).  Turkey  in  Europe.  Second  edit.  Pp. 

345.  London,  Arnold,  1908. 

The  first-hand  observation  of  a diplomat  regarding  the  Turkish  empire  in  Europe.  An 
admirable  book. 

32.  Garnett,  Lucy  M.  J.  Turkey  of  the  Ottomans.  Pp.  304.  London,  Pitman 

and  Sons,  1911. 

A very  general  discussion  of  the  Ottomans,  their  origin,  spread  and  character. 

33.  Gibb,  E.  J.  W.  Ottoman  Poems.  Pp.  Iv,  272.  London,  Triibner,  1882. 

A collection  of  the  poetry  of  the  Ottoman  Turks. 

34.  — A History  of  Ottoman  Poetry.  Six  vols.  London,  Luzac  & Co., 

1900-1909. 

A monumental  work. 

35.  Gibbons,  H.  A.  The  Foundations  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Pp.  379.  New 

York,  The  Century  Co.,  1916. 

A clear,  important  historical  study  of  the  formative  period  of  the  Ottoman  nation. 

36.  Gilman,  Arthur.  The  Saracens.  (Story  of  the  Nations  Series.)  Pp.  ii, 

493.  New  York,  Putnam,  1902. 

A popular  compilation  on  the  history  of  the  Saracens,  bringing  out  their  achievements 
in  literature,  art  and  science. 

37.  Grimme,  H.  Mohammed.  Two  vols.  Pp.  164,  186.  Munster,  1892-95. 

Short  but  thorough  and  at  first-hand. 

38.  el  Halebi,  ’All  ibn  Burhan-ud-din.  Insan  el  ‘Uyun.  Three  vols.  Cairo, 

1908. 

A popular  life  of  the  Prophet  in  Arabic,  quoting  much  later  tradition.  Worth  pos- 
sessing. 

39.  Holland,  E.  The  Story  of  Mohammed.  Pp.  192.  London,  Harran  & Co., 

1914. 

Brief,  concise  and  clear  account  of  the  early  struggles  of  Islam.  A second-hand 
account  which  rather  idealizes  Mohammed. 

40.  Huart,  Cl.  Histoire  des  Arabes.  Two  vols.  Pp.  380,  512.  Paris,  Geuth- 

ner,  1912-13. 

A condensed  account  of  the  growth  of  Islam  during  thirteen  centuries. 

41.  Hurgronje,  C.  Snouck.  Mohammedanism:  Its  Origin,  Religious  and 

Political  Growth  and  Present  State.  Pp.  184.  New  York,  Putnam,  1916. 

A very  important  summary  of  these  four  aspects  of  Islam  by  a leading  western 
student  of  Islam.  A sane  book  well  worth  careful  reading. 

42.  Johnstone,  P.  de  Lacy.  Muhammad  and  His  Power.  Pp.  xviii,  238. 

London,  Clark,  1901. 

An  unpretentious  but  well-balanced  little  biography,  useful  as  a first  sketch. 

43.  Ibn  Khallikan.  Biographical  Dictionary.  Translated  into  English  by 

MacGuckin  de  Slane.  Four  vols.  Paris,  1842-71. 

Highly  important  and  very  readable. 

44.  Kremer,  Alfred  von.  Culturgeschichte  des  Orients  unter  den  Chalifen. 

Two  vols.  Wien,  1875-77. 

Still  of  high  value. 

45.  — Geschichte  der  herrschenden  Ideen  des  Islams,  Leipzig,  1868. 

Still  of  value,  although  the  ground  is  now  better  covered  by  Goldziher,  “Moh.  Studien" 
(No.  86). 

46.  Lammens,  Henri.  Le  Berceau  de  I’lslam,  Vol.  I.  Le  Climat-Les  Bedouins. 

Pp.  xxiv,  372.  Rome,  1914. 

The  first  volume  of  an  elaborate  study  of  the  environment  out  of  which  Islam  arose. 
Most  learned,  suggestive  and  fresh. 

47.  — Fatima  et  les  filles  de  Mahomet.  Pp.  'viii,  170.  Rome,  1912. 

Father  Lammen  works  in  the  spirit  of  Goldziher  towards  the  criticism  of  the  usually 
accepted  life  of  Mohammed. 


115 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS  . 


48.  Lane-Poole,  S.  A History  of  Egypt  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Pp.  xvi,  382. 

London,  Methuen,  1901. 

This  history  ranges  from  the  conquest  by  the  Arabs  tov  the  Ottoman  conquest.  The 
best  history  for  its  period. 

49.  — Mediaeval  India  under  Mohammedan  Rule.  (Story  of  Nations.)  Pp. 

xviii,  449.  New  York,  Putnam,  1914. 

very  careful  study  of  this  period,  of  very  great  value. 

50.  — The  Mohammedan  Dynasties.  Pp.  xviii,  361.  London,  Constable  & 

Co.,  1894. 

A skeleton  manual  of  Islamic  history.  One  of  the  first  half-dozen  indispensable  books. 
Reliable  but  not  absolutely  comprehensive.  Based  on  coins  and  therefore  omits 
Central  Africa  and  Malaysia. 

51.  — The  Speeches  and  Table-talk  of  the  Prophet  Mohammed  (Golden 

Treasury  Series).  Macmillan. 

Very  readable  but  uncritical  on  traditions. 

52.  — The  Story  of  Cairo.  Pp.  360.  London,  Dent,  1902.  (Medieval  Towns 

Series.) 

."Vn  excellent  history  and  description  of  Cairo  which  every  missionary  in  Egypt  may 
read  with  profit. 

53.  Lyall,  Sir  Charles  J.  Ancient  Arabian  Poetry.  Pp.  Hi,  142.  London, 

Williams  & Norgate,  1885. 

The  standard  collection  of  old  Arab  verse.  Has  a very  valuable  introduction,  and 
is  n,ore  reliable  than  Clouston. 

54.  Margoliouth,  D.  S.  Mohammed  and  the  Rise  of  Islam.  (Heroes  of 

Nations.)  Pp.  481.  New  York,  Putnam,  1905. 

A life  of  Mohammed,  based  on  Moslem  sources,  intended  to  be  perfectly  fair.  It 
pictures  Mohammed  as  a hero  rather  than  as  a prophet.  Interesting  and  scholarly. 
It  is  reviewed  at  length  and  incisively  in  Church  Quarterly  Review,  July,  1906. 

55.  Merrick,  J.  L.  The  Life  and  Religion  of  Mohammed,  as  contained  in  the 

Sheeah  traditions  of  the  Hyat-ul-Kuloob.  Boston,  Phillips,  1850  (rare). 

56.  Muir,  W.  The  Caliphate:  Its  Rise,  Decline  and  Fall.  New  edit,  by 

T.  H.  Weir.  Pp.  628.  Edinburgh,  John  Grant,  1916. 

57.  — The  Life  of  Mahomet.  Four  vols.  1861.  Abridged  ed.  in  one  vol. 

Pp.  536,  1894.  London,  Smith,  Elder  & Co.  New  revised  ed.  by  Weir. 

Pp.  556.  Edinburgh,  Grant,  1912. 

These  two  works  by  Muir  have  set  a standard  for  half  a century.  Their  survey  of 
early  history  now  seems  to  be  somewhat  uncritical.  The  introduction  to  the  latter 
is  still  quite  valuable. 

58.  Miiller,  A.  Der  Islam  im  Morgen-und  Abendland  [Islam  in  East  and 

West].  Two  vols.  Berlin,  1885-87. 

The  best  general  history  of  Islam  extant,  with  maps  and  illustrations. 

59.  Ndldeke,  Th.  Sketches  from  Eastern  History.  Translated  by  J.  S.  Black. 

Pp.  288.  London,  Black,  1892. 

Valuable  studies  of  the  Semites,  the  Koran,  Islam,  etc.,  by  one  of  the  greatest  living 
students  of  Islam. 

60.  Sell,  Rev.  Canon  E.  The  Life  of  Muhammad.  Pp.  235.  London  and 

Madras,  Christian  Literature  Society  for  India,  1913. 

Based  on  original  authorities,  this  volume  echoes  and  answers  the  opinions  of  the 
modern  school  of  Moslem  apologists  in  India. 

61.  — The  Islam  Series.  London  and  Madras,  Christian  Literature  Society 

for  India. 

The  Four  Rightly-Guided  Khalifas.  Pp.  59.  1909. 

The  Ottoman  Turks.  Pp.  130.  1914. 

The  Umayyad  and  the  ’Abbasid  Khalifates.  Pp.  vii,  108.  1914. 

Muslim  Conquests  in  North  Africa.  Pp.  82.  1914. 

Muslim  Conquests  in  Spain.  Pp.  100.  1914. 

Mamluks  in  Egypt.  Pp.'  56.  1914. 

Muslims  in  China.  Pp.  50.  19l4. 

Inexpensive  pamphlets  of  varying  but  real  value. 

116 


THE  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  ISLAM 


62.  Sprenger,  A.  Das  Leben  und  die  Lehre  des  Mohammed  (Life  and  Teach- 

ings of  Mohammed).  Pp.  xxiv,  583,  548,  clxxx,  599.  Berlin,  1869. 

An  exhaustive  and,  for  its  time,  authoritative  discussion. 

63.  Sykes,  Percy  M.  History  of  Persia.  Two  vols.  Pp.  544,  565.  New  York, 

Macmillan,  1915. 

The  best  modern  account  of  the  history  of  Persia. 

64.  de  Tassy,  Garcin.  De  la  Religion  Musalmane  dans  ITnde.  Pp.  108. 

Paris,  1869. 

65.  Weil,  G.  Geschichte  der  islamitischen  Volker  [History  of  Moslem  Peo- 

ples]. Pp.  504.  Stuttgart,  1866. 

A sketch  of  the  political  and  cultural  history  of  the  principal  Moslem  nations  from 
Mohammed’s  time  to  the  sixteenth  century. 

66.  — Mohammed  der  Prophet,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Lehre.  Stuttgart,  1843. 

The  first  critical  life  of  the  Prophet. 

67.  — Geschichte  der  Chalifen.  Three  vols.  Mannheim,  1846-51. 

Based  on  original  sources  throughout.  Very  full.  Extends  to  the  capture  of  Bagdad, 
A.D.  1258. 

68.  Wellhausen,  J.  Reste  arabischen  Heidenthums  [Remains  of  Arabian 

Heathenism].  Pp.  viii,  250.  Second  edit.  Berlin.  1897. 

Critical  essays  on  the  Hajj,  the  ancient  Arab  cultus  and  the  origin  and  literature  of 
Islam. 

69.  Wherry,  E.  M.  Islam  and  Christianity  in  India  and  the  Far  East.  Pp. 

237.  New  York,  Revell,  1907. 

A study  of  Islam’s  progress  in  India,  Malaysia  and  China. 

70.  Zwemer,  S.  M.  Arabia  the  Cradle  of  Islam.  Second  edit.  rev.  Pp.  437. 

New  York,  Revell,  1900. 

Studies  in  the  geography,  peoples  and  politics  of  the  Peninsula. 


C.  THE  CONTENT  OF  ISLAM 


71.  Ali,  Syed  Ameer.  Islam  (Religious,  Ancient  and  Modern).  Pp.  78.  Lon- 

don, Constable,  1914. 

Digest  of  the  content  of  Islam  by  an  Indian  Moslem  who  sees  it  through  rose-colored 
glasses. 

72.  Arminjon,  P.  L’Enseignement,  la  doctrine  et  la  vie  dans  les  Universites 

Musulmanes  d’Egypte.  Pp.  294.  Paris,  1907. 

The  life  and  methods  of  the  Azhar,  etc. 

73.  Baillie,  N.  B.  E.  Digest  of  Muhammedan  Law.  Hanifi  Code,  1865 ; 

Imameea  Code,  1869. 

74.  Blunt,  W.  S.  The  Future  of  Islam.  Pp.  215.  London,  Kegan  Paul,  1882. 

75.  de  Boer,  T.  J.  The  History  of  Philosophy  in  Islam.  Translated  by  E.  R. 

Jones.  Pp.  xiii,  216.  London,  Luzac,  1903. 

Parallels  Macdonald’s  “Muslim  Theology”  on  the  philosophical  side.  A good  hand- 
book. 

76.  Bosworth-Smith.  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism.  Third  edit.  Pp.  312. 

London,  Murray,  1889. 

One  of  the  first  British  studies  of  Islam  which  aimed  to  be  sympathetic  in  its  treat- 
ment. 

77.  Doutte,  E.  Magie  et  Religion  dans  I’Afrique  du  Nord.  Pp.  618.  Alger, 

1909. 

By  far  the  most  imnortant  book  on  magic  and  superstition  in  Islam. 

117 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


78.  Fahmy,  Mansour.  La  Condition  de  la  Femme  dans  la  Tradition  et  revolu- 

tion de  ITslamisme.  Paris,  Librairie  Felix  Alcan,  1913. 

A thorough  critical  study  of  the  position  of  woman  in  Islam. 

79.  Field,  C.  Mystics  and  Saints  of  Islam.  Pp.  215.  London,  Griffith,  1910. 

A sketcli  of  fifteen  Moslem  saints  and  mystics  from  728  A.D.  to  1661  A.D.  Very 
interesting  and  illuminating.  He  traces  Sufiism  back  to  Mohammed  and  the  Koran. 

80.  Gairdner,  W.  H.  T.  The  Muslim  Idea  of  God  (Islam  Series).  Pp. 

69.  London,  Christian  Literature  Society  for  India. 

81.  Garcin  de  Tassy.  LTslamisme.  Third  edit.  Paris,  1874. 

A very  useful  book. 

82.  Gardner,  W.  R.  W.  The  Quranic  Doctrine  of  God.  Pp.  72.  The  Quranic 

Doctrine  of  Salvation.  Pp.  59.  The  Quranic  Doctrine  of  Sin.  Pp.  43. 
(The  Islam  Series.)  London  and  Madras,  Christian  Literature  So- 
ciety, 1914. 

All  very  careful,  first-hand  investigations. 

83.  Geiger,  A.  Judaism  and  Islam.  Translated  by  Lady  Mackworth  Young. 

Pp.  170.  London,  Simpkins,  1898. 

Originally  written  in  1833,  but  still  of  value  because  based  on  original  documents. 
Aims  at  showing  to  what  extent  and  why  Mohammed  borrowed  from  Judaism.  There 
is  an  important  review  in  Fleischer’s  “Kleinere  Schriften,”  Vol.  II,  p.  10  ff. 

84.  Goldsack,  Rev.  W.  Muhammad  in  Islam.  Sketches  of  Muhammad  from 

Islamic  Sources.  Pp.  114.  London,  Christian  Literature  Society  for 
India,  1916. 

An  excellent  brief  picture  of  the  Mohammed  of  Moslem  tradition,  giving  the  original 
sources  in  Arabic  of  all  quotations. 

85.  Goldziher,  I.  Vorlesungen  fiber  den  Islam.  Pp.  341.  Heidelberg,  1910. 

Lectures  on  Mohammed,  Moslem  law,  sects,  etc.  A basal  work  for  the  real  mastery 
of  Islam.  There  is  a French  translation. 

86.  — Mohammedanische  Studien  [Studies  in  Islam].  Two  vols.  Pp.  xii, 

280;  X,  420.  Halle,  1889-90. 

Vol.  I studies  Arabian  paganism  and  the  rise  of  Islam.  Vol.  II  has  an  epoch-making 
essay  on  Hadith  and  is  of  special  interest  to  the  missionary  student. 

87.  Hauri,  J.  Der  Islam  in  seinem  Einfluss  auf  das  Leben  seiner  Bekenner. 

Leiden,  1882. 

88.  Herklots,  G.  A.  Qanoon-i-Islam,  or  The  Customs  of  the  Mussulmans  of 

India.  Second  edit.  Pp.  296.  Madras,  J.  Higginbotham.  (Rare.) 

This  book  is  the  translation  of  an  original  by  Jaffur  Shurreef  (Ja’far  Sharif)  and  is 
an  invaluable  source  for  the  study  of  Islam  in  India. 

89.  Juynboll,  Th.  W.  Handbuch  des  Islamischen  Gesetzes.  Pp.  384.  Leyden, 

E.  J.  Brill,  1910. 

The  best  introduction  to  Mohammedan  canon  law;  it  follows  chiefly  the  Shafiite 
school. 

90.  Klein,  F.  A.  The  Religion  of  Islam.  Pp.  viii,  241.  London,  Kegan  Paul, 

1906. 

A good  general  introduction  to  the  study  of  Islam.  The  references  are  given  in  the 
original  Arabic  and  the  subject  is  handled  in  Moslem  fashion.  Especially  good  on 
doctrines  and  duties. 

91.  Koelle,  S.  W.  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism  Critically  Considered. 

London,  Rivington,  1889.  (Rare.) 

A review  bv  a missionary  making  many  contrasts  between  Mohammed  and  Christ. 
Rather  one-sided. 

92.  Lane,  E.  W.  The  Thousand  and  One  Nights,  commonly  called  in  England 

the  Arabian  Nights  Entertainments.  Three  vols.  London,  1839-41. 
Many  later  editions,  complete  and  incomplete. 

An  encyclopedia  of  .Arabic  customs,  beliefs  and  methods.  The  student  should  see  that 
he  owns  an  edition  with  the  full  commentary,  the  diacritical  signs  and  the  W.  Harvey 
illustrations.  The  right  editions  are  always  in  three  volumes  and  are  now  published 
by  Chatto  and  \Vindus,  London.  The  versions  by  Burton  and  Payne  are  more  com- 

118 


THE  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  ISLAM 


plete,  but  are  thereby  unfitted  for  general  use.  The  editions  of  the  Arabic  text, 
printed  in  Egypt,  are  complete  and  cheap.  There  is  a very  good  Indian  lithograph 
edition  in  four  large  volumes  published  at  Bombay. 

93.  Lane-Poole,  S.  Studies  in  a Mosque.  Second  edit.  Pp.  326.  London, 

Eden,  Remington  & Co.,  1893. 

A trustworthy  series  of  studies  of  various  phases  of  Islam. 

94.  Macdonald,  D.  B.  Aspects  of  Islam.  Pp.  375.  New  York,  Macmillan, 

1911. 

Addressed  to  those  who  have  the  responsibility  of  interpreting  Christianity  to  Islam. 
A good  introductory  volume.  A set  of  lectures  written  after  a year  in  the  East. 

95.  — The  Development  of  Muslim  Theology,  Jurisprudence  and  Constitu- 

tional Theory.  Pp.  386.  New  York,  Scribner,  1903. 

Explains  inner  Islam  and  its  historical  development.  Very  important.  Has  a useful, 
illustrative  appendix. 

96.  — The  Religious  Attitude  and  Life  in  Islam.  Pp.  317.  Chicago,  Univer- 

sity Press,  1909. 

A study  of  the  inner,  mystical,  experimental  side  of  Islam.  Very  valuable  to  a 
worker  among  Moslems.  Original  and  fresh,  based  on  modern  psychology. 

97.  Margoliouth,  D.  S.  The  Early  Development  of  Mohammedanism.  Pp.  265. 

London,  Williams  and  Norgate,  1913. 

Deals  with  the  Koran  as  the  basis  of  Islam  and  with  its  legal,  ritual,  ethical  and 
theological  supplementation. 

98.  — Mohammedanism.  Pp.  257.  London,  Williams  and  Norgate,  1912. 

An  exposition  of  Islam,  very  compendious. 

99.  Michell,  R.  L.  N.  An  Egyptian  Calendar.  Pp.  130.  London,  Luzac,  1900. 

For  the  Coptic  year  1617  (A.D.  1900-01),  but  of  permanent  use.  Gives  the  festivals, 
notes  about  crops  and  a calendar  of  annual  events. 

100.  Pautz,  O.  Mohammed’s  Lehre  von  der  Offenbarung.  Leipzig,  Hinrichs, 

1898. 

Contains  much  new  material  with  abundant  references  to  Moslem  writers. 

101.  Reinaud.  Description  des  monumens  musalmans  du  cabinet  de  M.  le  due 

de  Blacas.  Two  vols.  Pp.  xvi,  400,  488.  Paris,  1828. 

The  best  book  on  amulets.  Ten  plates  contain  many  examples. 

102.  Sachau,  E.  Muhammedanisches  Recht  nach  Schafiitischer  Lehre.  Stutt- 

gart und  Berlin,  1897. 

103.  Sell,  Rev.  Canon  E.  The  Hanifs.  (Islam  Series.)  Pp.  19.  London  and 

Madras,  Christian  Literature  Society,  1908. 

104.  — The  Faith  of  Islam.  Third  edit.  Pp.  xvi,  427.  London,  S.P.C.K., 

1907. 

An  important  study,  the  outcome  of  35  years’  experience  in  south  India.  The  best 
handbook  of  Islam  from  the  Indian  viewpoint.  Deals  only  with  the  faith. 

105.  — Historical  Development  of  the  Quran.  Third  edit.  Pp.  xi,  271.  Lon- 

don, S.P.C.K.,  1898. 

A valuable  aid  to  the  study  of  the  Koran. 

106.  Smith,  W.  Robertson.  Lectures  on  the  Religion  of  the  Semites.  First 

Series.  New  edit.  Pp.  507.  London,  Black,  1894. 

Contains  much  of  permanent  value. 

107.  Tisdall,  W.  St.  Clair.  The  Original  Sources  of  the  Quran.  Pp.  287 

London,  S.P.C.K.,  1905. 

A very  good  handbook  for  the  beginner,  based  on  original  texts,  describing  the  various 
elements,  Arab,  Jewish,  Christian  and  Zoroastrian,  incorporated  into  the  Koran. 

108.  — A Word  to  the  Wise.  (Islam  Series.)  London,  C.L.S.  for  India,  1913. 

A reply  to  two  Moslem  writers  who  attacked  Dr.  TisdalTs  “Original  Sources,”  to  which 
this  will  serve  as  a useful  appendix. 


119 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


109.  — The  Religion  of  the  Crescent.  Pp.  xvi,  251.  London,  S.P.C.K.,  1895. 

A good,  very  general  and  popular  introduction. 

110.  Zwemer,  S.  M.  The  Moslem  Doctrine  of  God.  Pp.  220.  New  York, 

American  Tract  Society,  1905. 

Discusses  the  character  and  attributes  of  God  and  their  implications  Rather  con- 
troversial. 


D.  MODERN  MOVEMENTS  IN  ISLAM 


111.  Rihani,  Ameen.  The  Book  of  Khalid.  Pp.  349.  New  York,  Dodd,  Mead 

& Co.,  1911. 

Shows  how  some  modern  Moslem  and  Syrian-Christian  minds  work  when  face  to  face 
with  European  literature  and  ideas. 

112.  Brown,  J.  P.  The  Dervishes  or  Oriental  Spiritualism.  Pp.  415.  London, 

Triibner,  1868. 

.^n  early  study  of  the  Dervishes.  Has  important  Turkish  material  but  is  very  rare. 

113.  Browne,  E.  G.  A Year  Amongst  the  Persians  (1887-8).  Pp.  ix,  594. 

London,  Black,  1893. 

The  best  account  of  modern  Persian  life  and  thought.  Especially  important  because 
of  the  data  about  Babism. 

114.  — The  Persian  Revolution  of  1905-1909.  Pp.  xxvi,  470.  Cambridge,  1910. 

A full,  documental  history  of  the  period. 

115.  — A Literary  History  of  Persia.  Two  vols.  Pp.  521,  568.  New  York, 

Scribner,  1902-6. 

The  first  volume  contains  a general  introduction.  The  second  volume  only  covers  the 
literary  history  to  Sa'di. 

116.  Bukhsh,  S.  Khuda.  Essays,  Indian  and  Islamic.  (Probsthain’s  Oriental 

Series.)  Pp.  295.  London,  Probsthain  & Co.,  1912. 

Very  valuable  critical  study  of  present  day  Mohammedanism  by  an  English-educated 
Moslem  with  an  unbiased  histone  and  critical  sense. 

117.  Le  Chatelier,  A.  Les  confreries  musulmanes  du  Hedjaz.  Bibl.  or.  Elzev., 

Paris. 

A most  valuable  little  book  on  the  dervish  fraternities. 

118.  Depont,  O.,  et  Cappolani.  Les  Confreries  religieuses  Musulmanes.  Pp. 

576.  Algiers,  Jourdan,  1897. 

Discusses  the  present  distribution  and  activity  of  the  dervish  orders. 

119.  Farquhar,  J.  N.  Modern  Religious  Movements  in  India.  Pp.  471.  New 

York,  Macmillan,  1915. 

Includes  a useful  summary  of  the  recent  movements  among  Indian  Moslems. 

120.  Gairdner,  W.  H.  T.  The  “_Way”  of  a Mohammedan  Mystic.  Pp.  22. 

Paper.  Leipzig,  Harrasowitz,  1912. 

A contribution  to  the  study  of  esoteric  Sufiism. 

121.  Garnett,  Lucy  M.  J.  Mysticism  and  Magic  in  Turkey.  Pp.  202.  London, 

Pitman,  1912. 

An  account  of  the  religious  doctrines,  monastic  organizations  and  ecstatic  powers  of 
the  dervish  orders  of  Turkey. 

122.  Haines,  C.  R.  Islam  as  a Missionary  Religion.  (Christian  Religious 

Systems.)  Pp.  xvi,  208.  London,  S.P.C.K.,  1889. 

123.  Headley,  Rt.  Hon.  Lord.  A Western  Awakening  to  Islam.  London,  J.  S. 

Phillips  & Co.,  1914. 

An  idealized  treatment  of  Islam  with  depreciation  of  Christianity  by  the  much- 
vaunted  convert  of  the  Moslem  mission  in  Woking,  England,  and  president  of  the 
British  Moslem  Association. 


120 


THE  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  ISLAM 


124.  Massignon,  Louis.  al-Hallaj.  Pp.  xxiv,  223.  Paris,  Geuthner,  1913. 

Marks  an  epoch  in  our  understanding  of  earlier  Moslem  mysticism.  Contains  an 
edition  of  Tawasin  with  other  related  texts. 

125.  Nicholson,  R.  A.  The  Mystics  of  Islam.  (Quest  Series.)  Pp.  vi,  178. 

London,  George  Bell  & Sons,  1914. 

A clear,  strong  presentation,  based  on  original  sources  of  the  development  of  Sufiism. 

126.  Pelly,  Col.  Sir  Lewis.  The  Miracle  Play  of  Hasan  and  Husain.  Revised 

by  A.  N.  Wollaston.  Two  vols.  Pp.  303,  352.  London,  W.  H.  Allen 
& Co.,  1879. 

The  text  of  this  Persian  Passion  Play  which  profoundly  affects  all  Shiites. 

127.  Phelps,  M.  H.  Life  and  Teachings  of  Abbas  Effendi.  Pp.  xliii,  259. 

New  York,  Putnam,  1904. 

A study  of  the  founder  of  the  Bahai  movement  and  of  his  work. 

128.  Roemer,  Dr.  Hermann.  Babi-Bahai.  Eine  Studie  zur  Religionsgeschichte 

des  Islam.  Pp.  200.  Potsdam,  Tempel,  1911. 

An  account  of  the  growth  and  significance  of  this  modern  movement,  strikingly  like 
to  and  distinct  from  Christianity.  Unprejudiced. 

129.  Sell,  E.  Essays  on  Islam.  Pp.  267.  London,  Simpkin,  1901. 

Studies  in  Sufiism,  Babism,  the  religious  orders  of  Islam,  the  recensions  of  the  Quran 
and  the  Hanifs.  VV'orth  studying. 

130.  — The  Religious  Orders  of  Islam.  Pp.  132.  London,  Simpkin,  Marshall 

& Co.,  1908. 

Gives  a full  account  of  all  the  important  dervish  orders,  ancient  and  modern,  in  the 
Moslem  world,  especially  of  the  Senusis,  the  Rahmanis  and  the  Qadiris. 

131.  — Bahaism.  Pp.  50.  The  Cult  of  ’Ali.  Pp.  60.  Sufiism.  Pp.  79.  (Islam 

Series.)  The  Christian  Literature  Society,  London  and  Madras,  1910-12. 

Brief  but  clear  sketches  of  each  of  these  cults. 

132.  Speer,  R.  E.  Missions  and  Modern  History.  Two  vols.  New  York, 

Revell,  1904. 

Chapter  3,  “The  Religion  of  the  Bab,”  is  a clear  and  thoughtful  account  of  Babism 
and  Bahaism,  with  valuable  supplementary  notes.  Chapter  9,  “The  Armenian  Mas- 
sacres,” makes  a study  of  Armenian  history  and  the  conditions  of  the  massacres. 

133.  Sykes,  P.  M.  The  Glory  of  the  Shia  World:  The  Tale  of  a Pilgrimage. 

Pp.  279.  London,  Macmillan,  1910. 

A story  of  Shiah  Persian  life  which  is  very  vivid  and  true,  describing  their  customs 
and  ideas.  Very  suggestive.  A modern  Hajji  Baba. 

134.  Walter,  H.  A.  The  Ahmadiya  Movement.  (The  Religious  Life  of  India 

Series.)  London,  Oxford  University  Press,  1918. 

A thorough  study  of  this  significant  modern  movement  in  India. 

135.  Weir,  T.  H.  The  Shaikhs  of  Morocco  in  the  16th  Century.  Pp.  xlvii,  316. 

Edinburgh,  George  A.  Morton,  1904. 

A picture  of  the  everyday  life  of  the  learned  and  pious  classes  in  the  Mohammedan 
world,  and  especially  of  the  Saints. 

136.  Wilson,  S.  G.  Bahaism  and  its  Claims.  Pp.  298.  New  York,  Revell,  1915. 

A clearly  written  history  of  this  movement  which  aims  at  adapting  Islam  to  the 
needs  of  the  age.  Somewhat  polemical  but  based  on  sources. 

137.  — Modern  Movements  Among  Moslems.  Pp.  305.  New  York,  Revell, 

1915. 

Discusses  on  the  basis  of  long  experience  in  Persia  religious,  educational,  social  and 
political  reforms  in  Islam.  Less  valuable  in  its  discussion  of  Islam  in  India. 

138.  Zwemer,  S.  M.  The  Disintegration  of  Islam.  Pp.  231.  New  York,  Revell, 

1916. 


121 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


E.  ISLAM  AND  CHRISTIANITY 

139.  Barton,  James  L.  Daybreak  in  Turkey.  Pp.  306.  Boston,  Pilgrim  Press, 

1908. 

A careful  study  of  conditions  in  Turkey  by  an  experienced  missionary  statesman. 

140.  Becker,  C.  H.  Christianity  and  Islam.  Tr.  by  H.  J.  Chaybor.  Pp.  114. 

London,  Harpers,  1904. 

An  important  contribution  to  the  subject  of  the  interaction  of  thought  between 
Christianity  and  Islam  by  the  leading  German  Islamist. 

141.  Bliss,  Frederick  J.  The  Religions  of  Modern  Syria  and  Palestine.  Pp. 

354.  New  York,  Scribner,  1912. 

Deals  with  the  Eastern  Churches  and  with  Islam. 

142.  Bonet-Maury,  G.  LTslamisme  et  le  Christianisme  en  Afrique.  Pp.  vi, 

295.  Paris,  Hachette,  1906. 

A monograph  on  the  conflict  between  Christianity  and  Islam  in  Africa. 

143.  Dods,  Marcus.  Muhammad,  Buddha  and  Christ.  Pp.  240.  London,  Hod- 

der  & Stoughton,  1893. 

144.  Gairdner,  Rev.  W.  H.  T.  The  Reproach  of  Islam.  Pp.  367.  S.P.C.K., 

1909. 

Surveys  the  call  to  the  evangelization  of  Mohammedans. 

145.  Goldsack,  W.  Christ  in  Islam.  Pp.  44.  London,  C.L.S.  for  India. 

A valuable,  accurate  study  of  the  Christology  of  Islam  by  a long-time  student  of  Islam 
in  India. 

146.  — Muhammad  and  the  Bible.  London,  C.L.S.  for  India.  Pp.  60.  1915. 

A study  of  the  Bible  passages  alleged  by  Moslems  to  foretell  the  coming  of  Mohammed. 

147.  Goldziher,  I.  Hadith  and  the  New  Testament.  Pp.  48.  London,  S.P.C.K. 

A sketch  of  importance  to  those  who  cannot  read  “Muhammedan  Studies.” 

148.  Greene,  J.  K.  Leavening  the  Levant.  Pp.  xii,  353.  Boston,  Pilgrim 

Press,  1916. 

Written  by  a missionary  for  over  fifty  years.  Contains  a helpful  survey  of  Turkish 
conditions. 

149.  Halliday,  G.  Y.  Islam  and  Christianity.  A letter  to  a Muslim  friend.  Pp. 

225.  American  Tract  Society,  1901. 

A useful  comparisouj  by  a missionary,  of  the  Koran  with  the  Bible. 

150.  Hamlin,  Cyrus.  Among  the  Turks.  Pp.  xii,  378.  New  York,  American 

Tract  Society,  1877. 

An  interesting  narrative  superseded  in  part  by  ‘‘My  Life  and  Times”  (No.  188). 

151.  Herrick,  G.  F.  Christian  and  Mohammedan.  A Plea  for  Bridging  the 

Chasm.  Pp.  253.  New  York,  Revell,  1912. 

A sympathetic  and  helpful  study  of  the  relations  between  Moslems  and  Christians, 
political,  social  and  historical,  by  a missionary  of  fifty  years*  experience  in  Turkey. 

152.  Abd  Isa.  Food  for  Reflection.  Pp.  152.  London,  C.L.S.  for  India,  1914. 

Reprint  of  a book  by  Dr.  Koelle  which  deals  convincingly  with  the  Moslem  conten- 
tion that  Islam  supersedes  Christianity  in  the  same  way  that  Christianity  claims  to 
supersede  Judaism. 

153.  Jessup,  H.  H.  The  Mohammedan  Missionary  Problem.  Pp.  128.  Phila- 

delphia, Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication,  1879. 

154  Mesnage,  J.  Le  Christianisme  en  Afrique.  Vols.  I-III.  Paris,  Picard, 
1914-15. 

A series  of  researches  into  the  Christian  history  of  North  Africa. 


THE  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  ISLAM 


155.  Muir,  W.  Sweet  First  Fruits.  Pp.  xix,  176.  New  York,  Revell,  1893. 

A translation  of  al-Bakura  al  Shahiya,  an  Arabic  book  written  by  a convert  from 
Islam.  Of  value  for  the  new  missionary  especially. 

156.  — The  Apology  of  Al  Kindy,  written  at  the  court  of  Al  Mamun.  Second 

edit.  Pp.  122.  London,  S.P.C.K.,  1887. 

A discussion  between  a Moslem  and  a Christian  in  the  ninth  century. 

157.  — The  Mohammedan  Controversy.  Pp.  220.  Edinburgh,  Clark,  1897. 

An  essay  on  the  controversial  writings  concerning  the  relations  of  Islam  and  Chris- 
tianity. 

158.  Mylrea,  C.  G.,  and  Iskander  ’Abdu’l  Masih.  The  Holy  Spirit  in  Qur’an 

and  Bible.  Pp.  53.  C.L.S.I.,  1911. 

A careful,  detailed  comparison  of  the  teachings  of  each  source. 

159.  Rice,  W.  A.  Crusaders  of  the  Twentieth  Century.  Pp.  511.  London, 

C.M.S.,  1910. 

An  invaluable,  exhaustive  handbook  for  missionaries  to  Mohammedans,  written  by  an 
experienced  scholar  with  missionary  experience  in  both  India  and  Persia. 

160.  Richter,  J.  A History  of  Protestant  Missions  in  the  Near  East.  Pp.  435. 

New  York,  Revell,  1910. 

A thorough  presentation  of  mission  history  both  as  regards  Eastern  Christians  and 
Moslems. 

161.  Robinson,  C.  H.  History  of  Christian  Missions.  (International  Theo- 

logical Library.)  Pp.  534.  New  York,  Scribner,  1916. 

Contains  much  of  value  to  a missionary  to  Moslems. 

162.  Shedd,  W.  A.  Islam  and  the  Oriental  Churches.  Pp.  vii,  253.  Philadel- 

phia, Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication,  1904. 

A study  of  the  influence  of  Christianity  on  Islam  at  its  beginnings  and  until  modern 
times. 

163.  Simon,  G.  The  Progress  and  Arrest  of  Islam  in  Sumatra.  Pp.  328. 

London,  Marshall,  1912. 

A study  of  the  problem  of  dealing  with  Animists  who  have  become  Mohammedans. 
A noteworthy  monograph.  A revised  and  abbreviated  translation  of  Islam  und 
Christenthum.  (Berlin,  Warneck,  1910.) 

164.  Smith,  H.  P.  The  Bible  and  Islam.  Pp.  319.  New  York,  Scribner,  1897. 

A scholarly  study. 

165.  Stephens,  W.  R.  W.  Christianity  and  Islam.  Pp.  168.  London,  Bentley, 

1877. 

166.  Takle,  J.  The  Faith  of  the  Crescent.  Pp.  188.  Calcutta,  Association 

Press,  1914. 

A useful  introductory  study  text-book  on  Islam  by  the  secretary  of  the  Missionaries 
to  Muslims  League  for  India  and  the  Far  East. 

167.  — The  Straight  Path  (Siratu’l  Mustaqim).  Pp.  85.  C.L.S.,  1914. 

An  excellent  short  outline  of  Christian  teachings  adapted  to  reach  the  educated  Moslem 
mind.  Helpful  for  use  with  an  inquirer. 

168.  Tisdall,  W.  St.  Clair.  A Manual  of  the  Leading  Muhammedan  Objections 

to  Christianity.  Pp.  239.  London,  S.P.C.K.,  1904. 

A valuable  book  for  a missionary  who  expects  to  reach  Moslems  with  the  Gospel. 

169.  — The  Key  of  Mysteries.  (Miftahu’l  Asrar.)  (The  Islam  Series.)  Pp. 

228.  London,  C.L.S.  for  India,  1913. 

A translation  and  revision  of  D.  C.  G.  Pfander’s  “Miftahu’l  Asrar,’’  a treatise  on  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  in  Unity  for  Moslem  readers.  A companion  volume  to  "The 
Balance  of  Truth.’’ 

170.  — The  Path  of  Life  (Tariqu’l  Hyat).  Pp.  336.  London,  C.L.S.  for 

India,  1913. 

A translation  of  Dr.  Pfander’s  work  on  Sin  and  Salvation  in  Christianity  and  in  other 
religions. 


123 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


171.  — Mizanu’l  Haqq  (Balance  of  Truth).  Pp.  390.  London,  R.T.  Soc.,  1910. 

Published  originally  in  Persian  by  Pfander  in  1835.  Weakley’s  translation  into  English, 
made  in  1867,  has  been  brought  up  to  date  by  Tisdall.  Valuable  as  a formulation  of 
Christian  truth  for  presentation  to  the  Moslem. 

172.  Vital  Forces  of  Christianity  and  Islam.  Pp.  250.  New  York,  Oxford 

University  Press,  1915. 

A reprint  of  a series  of  most  valuable  papers  by  missionaries  and  converts  from  Islam 
contributed  to  the  International  Review  of  Missions. 

173.  Walter,  H.  A.  Handbook  of  Work  with  Student  Enquirers  in  India. 

Pp.  75.  Calcutta,  Association  Press,  1915. 

A symposium  containing  valuable  suggestions  as  to  dealing  with  Moslem  enquirers, 
especially  in  India. 

174.  Watson,  A.  The  American  Mission  in  Egypt.  Pp.  484.  Pittsburgh, 

U.  P.  Board  of  Publication,  1898. 

An  account  of  the  development  of  the  U.  P.  Mission,  mainly  among  Copts  from  1854 
to  1896. 

175.  Wherry,  E.  M.  The  Muslim  Controversy.  Pp.  145.  London,  C.L.S.  of 

India,  1905. 

A most  useful  survey  and  digest  of  the  books  written  chiefly  by  Indian  Christians  in 
controversy  with  Muslims.  Really  an  Indian  supplement  to  Muir’s  “The  Muhammedan 
Controversy.’’ 

176.  — Lucknow,  1911.  Pp.  293.  London,  Christian  Literature  Society  for 

India,  1911  (printed  for  private  circulation  only). 

The  report  of  the  administrative  discussions  at  the  Lucknow  Conference,  relating 
especially  to  preparation  and  literature. 

177.  Wherry,  Zwemer  and  Mylrea,  editors.  Islam  and  Missions.  Pp.  298. 

New  York,  Revell,  1911. 

A general  survey  of  the  Mohammedan  world  of  1911  from  the  missionary  viewpoint. 
Contains  the  papers  on  survey  read  at  the  Second  Conference  at  Lucknow,  1911. 

178.  Wherry,  Zwemer  and  Barton,  editors.  The  Mohammedan  World  of 

Today.  Pp.  302.  New  York,  Revell,  1906. 

A valuable  series  of  sketches  of  the  world  situation  as  regards  Islam.  Papers  pre- 
sented to  the  Cairo  Missionary  Conference  of  1906. 

179.  Wishard,  J.  G.  Twenty  Years  in  Persia.  Pp.  349.  New  York,  Revell,  1908. 

A narrative  of  missionary  activity  under  the  last  three  Shahs. 

180.  Zwemer,  S.  M.  Mohammed  or  Christ.  Pp.  292.  London,  Seeley,  Service 

& Co.,  1916. 

An  account  of  the  rapid  spread  of  Islam,  its  methods  of  successful  propaganda,  and 
of  the  means  by  which  these  may  be  met. 

181.  — Islam,  A Challenge  to  Faith.  Pp.  xx,  295.  Second  rev.  edit,  1907. 

New  York,  Student  Volunteer  Movement. 

A popular  sketch  of  the  Moslem  world  and  the  problems  of  Missions  to  it. 

182.  — The  Moslem  Christ.  Pp.  198.  New  York,  American  Tract  Society, 

1912. 

A monograph  on  the  Christology  of  Islam.  It  shows  how  ignorant  even  learned  Mos- 
lems are  of  the  actual  facts  regarding  our  Lord.  Quite  useful  to  the  missionary. 


F.  MISSIONARY  AND  CHRISTIAN  BIOGRAPHY 


183.  Andre,  M.  Le  Bienheureux  Raymond  Lulle.  Pp.  216.  Second  edit 
Paris,  Lecoffre,  1900. 

The  best  biography  of  Lull  from  Roman  Catholic  sources.  Contains  much  matter  not 
usually  found. 


124 


THE  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  ISLAM 


184.  Barber,  W.  T.  A.  Raymond  Lull : the  Illuminated  Doctor.  A Study  in 
, Mediaeval  Missions.  Pp.  172.  London,  Kelly,  1903. 

This  volume  deals  -with  Lull  as  a scholar  and  shows  how  he  joined  with  Roger  Bacon 
in  pleading  for  the  necessity  of  a complete  scientific  education  for  missionaries.  A 
fine  historical  study. 

185.  Birks,  H.  The  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Thomas  Valpy  French,  First 

Bishop  of  Lahore.  Two  vols.  Pp.  407,  422.  London,  Murray,  1895. 

Should  he  included  among  helpful  biographies.  The  story  of  a great  missionary, 
scholar  and  saint,  well  told. 

186.  Dwight,  H.  O.  A Muslim  Sir  Galahad.  Pp.  188.  New  York,  Revell,  1913. 

An  entertaining  and  suggestive  account  of  the  experiences  of  a convert  from  Islam. 

The  life  story  of  a “seeker,”  illustrating  the  struggle  required  from  a Mohammedan 
who  begins  to  feel  the  power  of  Christianity.  Well  worth  the  reading  of  a young 
missionary. 

187.  Gairdner,  W.  H.  T.  The  Life  of  Douglas  M.  Thornton.  Pp.  283.  London, 

Hodder,  second  edit.,  1908. 

The  story  of  the  life  work  of  a C.M.S.  missionary  in  Egypt  among  Moslems. 

188.  Hamlin,  Cyrus.  My  Life  and  Times.  Pp.  538.  Pilgrim  Press,  1893, 

The  inspiring  career  of  the  founder  of  Robert  College. 

189.  Heanley,  R.  M.  A Memoir  of  Edward  Steers,  third  Missionary  Bishop 

to  Central  Africa.  Pp.  xii,  448.  London,  Universities  Mission  to  Cen- 
tral Africa,  1898. 

190.  Imad-ud-Din.  A Mohammedan  Brought  to  Christ.  New  edit.  Pp.  22. 

London,  C.M.S.,  1885. 

The  story  of  the  conversion  of  an  Indian  Moslem  who  became  a great  Christian 
controversialist. 

191.  Jessup,  H.  H.  Fifty-three  Years  in  Syria.  Two  vols.  Pp.  404,  428.  New 

York,  Revell,  1910. 

A combined  history  of  missionary  development  in  Syria  and  record  of  important  per- 
sonal experiences.  The  autobiography  of  a missionary  statesman,  showing  a great 
series  of  achievements. 

192.  — Kamil  Abdul  Messiah.  Pp.  156.  Philadelphia,  Westminster  Press,  1899. 

The  story  of  a Syrian  convert  to  Christianity  whose  active  career  was  brief  but  illus- 
trative of  great  possibilities. 

193.  Nelson,  W.  Habeeb  the  Beloved.  Pp.  102.  Philadelphia,  Westminster 

Press. 

194.  Pennell,  Alice  M.  Pennell  of  the  Afghan  Frontier.  Pp.  xv,  464.  New 

York,  Dutton,  1914. 

The  remarkable  life  of  a medical  missionary,  Theodore  L.  Pennell,  M.D.,  by  his  wife. 

He  was  a real  hero  who  did  a wonderful  work. 

195.  Pennell,  T.  L.  Among  the  Wild  Tribes  of  the  Afghan  Frontier.  Pp.  xvi,  J' 

324.  Philadelphia,  Lippincott,  1909. 

Dr.  Pennell’s  own  story  of  sixteen  years  of  service  on  the  Northwest  Frontier.  Well 
illustrated  and  giving  a clear  picture  of  the  people. 

196.  Prime,  E.  D.  Forty  Years  in  the  Turkish  Empire.  Eighth  edit.  Pp.  xii, 

489.  Boston,  American  Board,  1891. 

The  memoirs  of  Rev.  William  Goodell,  a pioneer  missionary  to  Syria. 

197.  Sargent,  John.-  Life  of  Rev.  Henry  Mart}^.  Pp.  463.  London,  Seeley. 

The  standard  story  of  Martyn’s  spiritual  history. 

198.  Sinker,  R.  Memories  of  the  Hon.  Ian  Keith-Falconer.  Pp.  viii,  246, 

Cambridge,  Deighton,  1890. 

The  best  available  memoir  of  a remarkable  life  given  to  Mohammedan  missions. 

199.  Smith,  George.  Henry  Martvn,  Saint  and  Scholar.  Pp.  580.  New  York, 

Revell,  1892. 

A picture  of  the  life  and  work  of  this  first  modern  missionary  to  Mohammedans.  1781- 
1812. 


125 


PREbENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


200.  Speer,  R.  E.  The  H?»kim  Sahib,  the  Foreign  Doctor.  Pp.  384.  New 

York,  Revell,  1911. 

The  biography  of  Joseph  P.  Cochran  of  Persia.  The  accurate  photograph  of  a very 
unusual  man,  a Presbyterian  medic..'  missionary  for  twenty-seven  years  in  Persia. 
Very  valuable  for  a medical  man  with  a strong  message. 

201.  Washburn,  G.  Fifty  Years  in  Constantinople  and  Recollections  of  Robert 

College.  Pp.  xxxi,  317.  Boston,  Houghton,  Mifflin  & Co.,  1909. 

A book  to  be  read  along  with  Hamlin’s  "Life  and  Times.”  Very  valuable. 

202.  Zwemer,  S.  M.  Raymond  Lull : First  Missionary  to  the  Moslems.  Pp.  319. 

New  York.  Funk,  1902. 

An  illustrated  biography  of  this  great  missionary,  vivid  and  interesting. 


G.  DESCRIPTIVE  WORKS  AND  STORIES 


203.  “Adalet.”  Hadjira,  a Turkish  Love  Story.  Pp.  314.  London,  Arnold,  1896. 

A true  picture  of  Turkish  life. 

204.  Bell,  Gertrude  L.  From  Amurath  to  Amurath.  Pp.  370.  New  York, 

Dutton,  1911. 

A volume  of  travel  from  Aleppo  down  the  Euphrates,  up  the  Tigris  and  through 
Armenia.  A good  picture  of  the  life  and  thinking  of  the  people  during  the  second 
Turkish  revolution. 

205.  — Syria  the  Desert  and  the  Sown.  Pp.  364.  London,  1907. 

A fresh  and  vivid  description  of  the  border  of  the  Syrian  desert.  Suggestive  for  the 
psychology  of  the  people. 

206.  Burckhardt,  J.  L.  Travels  in  Arabia.  Two  vols.  London,  1829. 

207.  — Notes  on  the  Bedouins  and  Wahabys.  Two  vols.  London,  1831. 

These  two  works  are  each  a classic. 

208.  Burton,  Sir  R.  F.  Personal  Narrative  of  a Pilgrimage  to  Al-Madinah  and 

Meccah.  One  vol.  Pp.  492.  New  York,  Putnam,  1856.  Two  vols. 
Pp.  xxxviii,  436,  479.  London,  Tylston  and  Edwards,  1893.  A good  and 
very  cheap  edit,  in  G.  Bell  and  Sons  York  Library. 

A classic  of  adventurous  exploration.  Tells  a fascinating  and  accurate  stor>  of  the 
pilgrimage,  and  gives  a view,  still  valuable,  of  the  ritual  service  of  Islam. 

209.  Carhout,  A.  F.  Masoud  the  Bedouin.  Pp.  249.  New  York,  Missionary 

Education  Movement,  1915. 

Stories  which  embody  the  writer’s  real  knowledge  of  Syrian  life  in  contact  with 
missionaries. 

210.  Doughty,  C.  M.  Travels  in  Arabia  Deserta.  Two  vols.  Pp.  622,  690. 

Cambridge  University  Press,  1888. 

The  standard  work  on  Bedouin  life.  Gives  the  clearest  idea  of  the  workings  of  the 
Arab  mind. 

211.  Duff-Gordon,  Lady.  Letters  from  Egypt,  1863-65.  Pp.  371.  London, 

Macmillan,  1865. 

A very  vivid  description  of  life  in  Egypt. 

212.  — Last  Letters  from  Egypt.  Pp.  346.  Macmillan,  1875. 

Very  intimate  and  sympathetic  pictures  of  country  life  in  Egypt. 

213.  Dwight,  H.  O.  Constantinople  and  its  Problems.  New  York,  1901. 

214.  Forder,  A.  Ventures  Among  the  Arabs  in  Desert,  Tent  and  Town.  Pp. 

xii,  292.  New  York,  Gospel  Publishing  House,  1909. 

A narrative  of  thirteen  years  of  pioneer  missionary  life  with  the  Ishmaelites  of  Moab, 
Edom  and  Arabia. 


126 


THE  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  ISLAM 


215. 

216. 

217. 

218. 


219. 


220. 

221. 

222. 

223. 

224. 

225. 

226. 

227. 

228. 

229. 

230. 

231. 

232. 


Giffen,  J.  K.  The  Egyptian  Sudan.  Pp.  252.  New  York,  Revell,  1905. 

Goldsack,  W.  Ghulam  Jabbar’s  Renunciation.  A Tale  of  Eastern  Bengal. 
London,  C.L.S.  for  India,  1914. 

An  instructive  and  inspiring  story  of  the  conversion  of  two  Indian  Moslem  young 
men.  It  deals  specially  with  the  Moslem  charge  of  corruption  of  the  Christian  Scrip- 
tures. 

Hogarth,  D.  G.  The  Penetration  of  Arabia  (The  Story  of  Exploration) 
Pp.  360.  New  York,  Stokes,  1904. 

Hurgronje,  Prof.  Dr.  C.  Snouck.  Mekka.  Two  vols.  Pp.  xxiii,  228; 
xviii,  597.  The  Hague,  Nijhoff,  1888-89. 

Containing  a full  description  of  what  the  author  saw  during  a period  of  residence  in 
the  sacred  city  of  Islam.  A classic  on  the  significance  of  the  city  and  on  the  pil- 
grimage, also  on  the  more  recent  history  of  Mecca.  Those  who  read  Arabic  will  find 
an  excellent  parallel  account  in  the  Rihia  al-hijazlya  of  Muhammed  Labib  al-Batanuni, 
Cairo,  A.  II.  1329. 

Hunter,  W.  W.  The  Indian  Musalmans.  Pp.  219.  Third  edit.  London, 
Triibner  & Co.,  1876. 

A study  of  Islam  in  India  during  the  last  century  by  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
and  scholarly  of  the  members  of  the  British  Civil  Service  in  India.  A student  of 
the  subject  should  not  overlook  the  criticisms  of  Dr.  Hunter^s  work  by  Sir  Sayyiad 
Ahmad  Khan  in  1871  and  “Indian  Musulmans,*’  by  W.  N.  Lees,  1872. 

Jenkins,  Hester  D.  Behind  Turkish  Lattices.  Pp.  180.  Philadelphia, 
Lippincott,  1911. 

An  analysis  of  the  life  of  Turkish  women  of  the  city. 

Jessup,  H.  H.  The  Women  of  the  Arabs.  New  York,  1874. 

Lane,  E.  W.  An  Account  of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Modern 
Egyptians.  London,  1836  and  ever  since. 

An  indispensable  book  for  every  missionary  to  Islam.  An  excellent  cheap  edition 
with  all  the  original  illustrations  is  in  the  Everyman  Series. 

Loti,  Pierre.  Disenchanted.  London,  Nelson. 

A story  which  sets  forth  the  romance  of  the  modern  East. 

Malcolm,  Sir  John.  Sketches  of  Persia.  Many  edit.  An  inexpensive  one 
in  Cassell’s  National  Library. 

Abdullah  Mansur.  The  Land  of  Uz.  Pp.  354.  New  York,  Macmillan, 
1911. 

A valuable  account  of  travels  in  Southern  Arabia. 

Morier,  James.  The  Adventures  of  Haji  Baba  of  Ispahan.  (Everyman 
Series.)  Pp.  399.  New  York,  Dutton. 

A truthful  word  picture  of  Persian  life  in  all  its  aspects,  including  the  ways  and 
ideas  of  a Mohammedan  imam.  First  published  in  1823,  but  still  instructive. 

Palgrave,  W.  G.  Narrative  of  a Year’s  Journey  Through  Central  and 
Eastern  Arabia.  Second  edit.  Two  vols.  London,  Macmillan,  1865. 

Very  vivid  and  real.  It  contains  much  that  is  true  and  much  that  is  false,  so  that 
it  may  mislead.  The  descriptions  of  central  Arabia  are  the  best. 

Palmer,  E.  H.  The  Desert  of  the  Exodus.  Cambridge,  Bell,  1871. 

A journey  on  foot  full  of  contact  with  the  Bedawin. 

Pears,  Sir  Edwin.  Turkey  and  its  People.  Pp.  409.  London,  Methuen, 
1911. 

An  account  of  the  various  peoples  in  Turkey,  discussing  possible  reforms  and  describing 
the  various  churches  under  Turkish  sway. 

Perron.  Femmes  arabes  avant  et  depuis  I’lslamisme.  Paris,  1858. 

The  only  comprehensive  book  on  the  subject. 

Poole,  Sophia.  An  Englishwoman  in  Egypt.  Two  vols.  Pp.  232,  240. 
London,  Knight,  1845, 

Contains  some  good  Egyptian  ghost  stories. 

Prowse,  C.  The  Lure  of  Islam.  Pp.  225.  London,  Sampson,  1914. 

A realistic  novel  which  throws  vivid  light  on  the  methods  of  propagating  Islam. 

127 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


233.  Ralli,  Augustus.  Christians  at  Mecca.  Pp.  278.  London,  Heinemann,  1910. 

Gives  the  narratives  of  as  many  as  twenty  attempts  between  1503  and  1894  to  visit  the 
holy  city  of  Islam. 

234.  Ruchdi  Pacha,  Madame  H.  Harems  et  Musulmanes  d’Egypte.  Paris, 

Juven,  1902. 

An  admirable  study  of  Egyptian  life,  especially  of  female  and  slave  life. 

235.  — Les  Repudiees.  Pp.  288.  Paris,  1908. 

.\  story  of  Egyptian  female  and  family  life. 

236.  Schauffler,  Rachel  C.  The  Goodly  Fellowship.  Pp.  325.  New  York, 

Macmillan,  1912. 

Written  by  a missionary’s  daughter  and  based  on  her  brother-in-law’s  martyrdom. 
Persia  furnishes  the  background. 

237.  Small,  A.  H.  Suwarta  and  Other  Sketches  of  Indian  Life. 

.'Kn  excellent  sketch  of  women’s  work  among  Mohammedan  women. 

238.  St.  John,  Bayle.  Two  Years’  Residence  in  a Levantine  Family.  London, 

Chapman  and  Hall,  1850. 

Native  Christian  life  in  Alexandria  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  A very  sug- 
gestive sketch. 

239.  Taylor,  Meadows.  Confessions  of  a Thug.  Pp.  552.  Oxford,  1916. 

(World’s  Classics.) 

Eirst  published  in  1839.  Important  for  Indian  Islam. 

240.  Vaka,  Demitra.  Haramlik  or  Some  Pages  from  the  Life  of  Turkish 

W’omen.  Boston,  Houghton,  Mifflin  & Co.,  1909. 

241.  — Child  of  the  Orient.  Pp.  298.  Houghton,  Mifflin  & Co.,  1914. 

.'tn  imaginative  but  very  instructive  Oriental  tale.  It  may  also  mislead  the  reader. 

242.  Van  Sommer,  A.,  and  Zwemer,  S.  M.,  editors.  Our  Moslem  Sisters,  A 

Cry  of  Need.  Second  edit.  Pp.  299.  New  York,  Revell,  1907. 

vivid,  attractive  set  of  sketches  of  the  life  of  Moslem  women.  The  gist  of  a series 
of  papers  presented  at  the  Cairo  Conference  of  1906. 

243.  — Daylight  in  the  Harem.  A New  Era  for  Moslem  Women.  Pp.  224. 

New  York,  Revell,  1911. 

A volume  of  the  papers  relating  to  work  among  Moslem  women  presented  to  the 
Lucknow  Conference  of  1911. 

244.  Watson,  C.  R.  In  the  Valley  of  the  Nile.  Pp.  249.  New  York,  Revell, 

1908. 

245.  Wherry,  E.  M.  Zeinab  the  Panjabi.  Pp.  80.  New  York,  American  Tract 

Society,  1895. 

A story  showing  how  the  gospel  affected  a Mohammedan  widow. 

246.  Zwemer,  S.  M.  Childhood  in  the  Moslem  World.  Pp.  274.  New  York, 

Revell,  1915. 

A study  of  the  environment  of  childhood  in  Islam,  showing  the  lack  of  religious  and 
moral  education. 


H.  REFERENCE  WORKS 


247.  Brockelmann,  Karl.  Geschichte  der  arabischen  Litteratur.  Two  vols. 

Pp.  528,  714.  Weimar,  Felber,  1898-1902.  • 

Not  a history,  but  a collection  of  bibliographical  and  biographical  materials.  The 
most  generally  used  reference  book  on  Arabic  literature.  Indispensable  for  all  who 
can  read  German. 

248.  Dozy,  R.  Supplement  aux  Dictionnaires  Arabes.  Two  vols.  Leyden,  1881. 

Contains  many  words  and  phrases  not  found  in  other  lexicons. 

249.  Encyclopedia  Britannica.  11th  edit.  Cambridge  Univ.  Press,  1910. 

The  9th  edition  still  retains  its  value  for  its  oriental  articles,  notably  those  by 
Wellhausen  and  Nbldeke  on  Mohammed,  the  Koran  and  on  Arabic  subjects  generally. 
They  are  often  fuller  than  those  in  the  11th  edition. 

128 


THE  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  ISLAM 


250.  The  Encyclopedia  of  Islam : A Dictionary  of  the  Geography,  Ethnography, 

and  Biography  of  the  Mohammedan  Peoples.  Edited  by  Dr.  M.  Th. 
Houtsma,  T.  W.  Arnold,  Dr.  Seligsohn  and  A.  Schaade.  Four  vols.  in 
60  parts.  London,  Luzac  & Co.,  1915. 

Authoritative,  scholarly  articles,  with  excellent  bibliographies.  Quite  exhaustive  and 
very  valuable.  Only  twenty-two  parts  have  appeared  to  the  date  of  1916. 

251.  Encyclopedia  of  Religion  and  Ethics.  Edited  by  Hastings.  New  York, 

Scribner,  1908. 

The  standard  reference  work  representing  up-to-date  opinion.  Very  valuable  to  a 
student  of  religion  and  should  be  in  every  general  mission  library. 

252.  Field,  Claud.  A Dictionary  of  Oriental  Quotations  (Arabic  and  Persian). 

London,  Sonnenschein. 

A good  collection  of  well-chosen  quotations  from  leading  Arabic  authors,  given  in  the 
original,  transliterated  and  translated. 

253.  Fluegel,  G.  Concordantiae  Corani  Arabic*.  Leipzig,  1842  and  after. 

The  standard  Koran  concordance. 

254.  Hava,  J.  G.  Arabic-English  Dictionary.  Pp.  909.  Beirut,  Catholic  Press, 

1899. 

Uses  small  type.  Less  well  arranged  than  Salmone,  but  useful. 

255.  Huart,  Cl.  A History  of  Arabic  Literature.  Pp.  478.  London,  Heine- 

mann,  1903. 

A compact,  reliable  history  by  a French  Orientalist  of  distinction. 

256.  Hughes,  T.  P.  Dictionary  of  Islam.  London,  W.  H.  Allen  & Co.,  1885. 

A valuable  book,  obtainable  in  an  anastatic  reprint,  written  rather  largely  from  the 
standpoint  of  India,  but  helpful  to  one  who  approaches  Islam  from  the  missionary 
standpoint.  An  encyclopedia  of  the  doctrines,  rites,  ceremonials  and  customs,  as  well 
as  of  the  technical  terms  of  religion.  Very  useful  as  a key  to  the  Koran. 

257.  Le  Strange,  (^y.  Lands  of  the  Eastern  Caliphate,  Mesopotamia,  Persia 

and  Central  Asia  from  the  Muslim  Conquest  to  the  Time  of  Timur. 
Pp.  554.  Cambridge,  1905.  (Cambridge  Geographical  Series.) 

Descriptive,  historical  and  economic  geo^aphy,  with  maps,  a valuable  index,  and  full 
references  to  native  geographies.  An  original  book. 

258.  — Baghdad  during  the  Abbasid  Caliphate  from  contemporary  Arabic  and 

Persian  Sources.  Pp.  411.  Oxford,  University  Press,  1900. 

Descriptive  and  historical  topography. 

259.  Nicholson,  R.  A.  A Literary  History  of  the  Arabs.  Pp.  xxxi,  5(X).  New 

York,  Scribner,  1907. 

A very  valuable  compendium  and  conspectus  of  the  literature. 

260.  Noldeke,  Th.  Geschichte  des  Qorans.  Gottingen,  Dieterich,  1860.  Second 

edit..  Part  First,  revised  by  Schwally.  Pp.  xlii,  261.  Leipzig,  1909. 

The  standard  help  for  the  critical  study  of  the  text  of  the  Koran.  The  original  edition 
is  still  very  valuable. 

261.  Penrice,  J.  A Dictionary  and  Glossary  of  the  Koran.  London,  1873. 

An  excellent  special  lexicon  of  the  Koran. 

262.  Saladin,  H.,  and  Migeon,  G.  Manuel  d’Art  Musulman.  Two  vols.  Paris, 

1907. 

263.  Salmone,  H.  A.  An  Arabic-English  Dictionary.  Pp.  1252.  London, 

Triibner,  1890. 

Beautifully  printed  and  clearly  arranged.  Becomes  fuller  after  the  first  few  letteis. 

264.  Wherry,  E.  M.  A Comprehensive  Commentary  on  the  Qur’an.  Four  vols. 

Pp.  391,  466,  414,  340.  London,  Kegan  Paul,  1882-86. 

Best  available  commentary  in  English,  based  on  Sale’s  translation,  expanded  from 
Indian  and  other  authorities. 


Der  Islam.  A Quarterly.  Strassburg,  Triibner. 

The  Moslem  World.  A Quarterly  edited  by  Dr.  Zwemer.  London,  C.L.S.I. 
Revue  du  Monde  Musulman.  A Monthly.  Paris,  Leroux. 

The  specialty  of  Der  Islam  is  scholarship  and  past  historv;  of  The  Moslem  World  is 
missions,  and  of  the  Revue  is  sociology,  contemporary  history  and  politics.  All  are 
excellent. 


129 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


XV.  Suggested  Reading  Courses  for  Those  Contem- 
plating Missionary  Work  Among  Moslems 

The  preceding  report  is  intended  to  be  of  service  to  the 
missionary  candidate,  to  the  junior  missionary  and  even  to 
the  missionary  of  considerable  experience.  Its  bibliography 
has,  consequently,  been  given  a wide  range,  including  not  a 
few  books  which  are  far  from  easy  to  obtain,  in  order,  on 
the  one  hand,  to  encourage  missionary  research,  and,  on  the 
other,  to  be  sure  of  including  the  books  about  which  a varied 
number  of  students  need  to  know.  To  prevent  the  bibli- 
ography from  bewildering  the  inexperienced  student  and  to 
guide  the  reading  of  those  who  are  in  various  stages  of 
preparation  and  who  have  varying  needs,  the  following  sug- 
gestions are  made: 

1.  For  the  Reading  of  a Student  in  College  or  Undergraduate  Train- 
ing School. — The  books  mentioned  below  are  untechnical  but  excellent 
in  quality.  They  will  serve  to  give  a beginner  some  idea  of  Islam. 

(a)  A Bird’s  Eye  View. — One  of  the  very  best  books  for  a first 
impression  of  Islam  is  Takle’s  “Religion  of  the  Crescent”  (166).  It 
is  published  in  Calcutta,  but  may  be  secured  through  the  Association 
Press.  Zwemer’s  “Islam”  (181)  is  another  useful  introduction. 

(b)  The  History  of  Islam. — Muir’s  “Life  of  Mahomet,”  one  volume 
edition,  is  useful.  It  needs  to  be  corrected  by  Hurgronje,  “Mohamme- 
danism” (41),  which  is  hard  reading  but  accurate. 

(c)  The  Atmosphere  of  Islam. — The  “Thousand  and  One  Nights” 
(92),  furnishes  a library  of  suggestions.  A capital  story  is  Morier’s 
“Haji  Baba  of  Ispahan”  (226).  Lane’s  “Manners  and  Customs” 
(222)  or  Burton’s  “Pilgrimage”  (208)  are  classics.  Lady  Duff- 
Gordon’s  “Letters”  (211,  212)  and  Demitra  Vaka’s  harem  stories 
(240,  241)  are  full  of  interest,  although  the  latter  are  not  reliable. 

(d)  Conditions  of  Missionary  Life. — Barton,  “Daybreak  in  Turkey” 
(139)  or  Zwemer,  “Cradle  of  Islam”  (70)  gives  an  illuminating  por- 
trayal of  the  environment  of  a missionary. 

130 


SUGGESTED  READING  COURSES 


(e)  Missionary  Biography. — Hamlin,  “Life  and  Times”  (188). 
Dwight,  “A  Muslim  Sir  Galahad”  (186),  Pennell’s  “Wild  Tribes” 
(195),  Speer’s  “Hakim  Sahib”  (200)  and  Zwemer’s  “Lull”  (202)  are 
entertaining,  varied  and  highly  instructive. 

2.  For  the  General  Reading  of  the  Graduate  or  Professional  Student. 
— This  list  and  those  following  represent  books  of  a more  advanced 
character.  It  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  books  in  French  or  Ger- 
man mentioned  in  the  bibliography  are  among  the  best  of  their  kind. 

(a)  The  History  of  Islam. — Ali’s  “Spirit  of  Islam”  (20)  and  Ar- 
nold’s “Preaching  of  Islam”  (22)  should  be  read  together.  Gilman’s 
“Saracens”  (36)  and  Lane-Poole’s  “Dynasties”  (50)  merit  careful  at- 
tention. Margoliouth’s  “Mohammed”  (54)  and  Muller’s  “Der  Islam” 
(58)  are  very  dependable.  Ali’s  “History  of  the  Saracens”  is  ex- 
cellent (21). 

(b)  Arabic  Literature. — A good  and  reliable  general  history  is 
Nicholson’s  “Literary  History”  (259). 

(c)  Poetry. — The  best  collection  of  the  poetry  of  the  Arabs  is  that 
by  Lyall,  “Ancient  Arabian  Poetry”  (53).  A valuable  collection  of 
more  modern  verse  is  that  by  Gibb,  “Ottoman  Poems”  (33). 

(d)  Religious  Sects. — Nicholson’s  “Mystics”  (125)  is  a strong  study 
of  Sufiism.  Sell’s  “Essays”  (129),  his  “Religious  Orders”  (130)  and 
the  cult  monographs  (131)  are  very  valuable  and  suggestive.  Walter’s 
“Ahmadiya  Movement”  (134)  discusses  fully  a very  important  modern 
movement. 

(e)  Modern  Movements  in  Islam. — Browne,  “A  Year”  (113)  for 
Babism,  Farquhar,  “Modern  Movements”  (119),  Wilson,  “Modern 
Movements”  (137)  and  Zwemer,  “Disintegration”  (138)  will,  with 
Walter  (134),  already  mentioned,  and  numbers  117  and  118  give  an 
admirable  conspectus  of  these  movements. 

(f)  Christian  Missions. — The  best  book  to  serve  as  an  introduction 
is  Macdonald’s  “Aspects  of  Islam”  (94).  Greene’s  “Leavening  the 
Levant”  (148)  and  Jessup’s  “Fifty-three  Years”  (191)  cover  a half- 
century  of  marvelous  changes.  For  a general  history  see  Richter’s 
“Protestant  Missions”  (160).  For  the  world  situation  in  regard  to 
Islam  in  1906,  see  No.  178.  For  a particularly  puzzling  problem  see 
Simon’s  “Progress  and  Arrest”  (163). 

(g)  Social  and  Economic  Problems. — Dwight,  “Constantinople” 
(213),  Van  Sommer,  “Daylight  in  the  Harem”  (243)  and  Zwemer, 

131 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


“Childhood  in  the  Moslem  World”  (246) ; each  throw  a flood  of  light 
upon  social  conditions.  Hurgronje’s  “Mekka”  (218)  is  a very  thorough 
study  of  conditions  and  problems. 

(3)  For  Reading  During  the  Period  of  Specialization. — There  is 
little  real  difference  between  the  books  mentioned  above  and  those  in 
this  list.  A genuinely  advanced  student  will  be  putting  in  much  of  his 
time  on  original  sources  in  Arabic,  Persian,  etc. 

(a)  The  Comparison  of  Islam  with  Christianity. — Becker’s  “Chris- 
tianity and  Islam”  (140)  is  well  worthy  careful  study,  likewise  Her- 
rick, “Christian  and  Mohammedan”  (151).  Muir,  “The  Apology  of 
A1  Kindy”  (156)  will  be  helpful,  while  Rice,  “Crusaders”  (159)  and 
Tisdall’s  “Manual”  (168)  seem  indispensable. 

(b)  The  Problems  of  Islam. — Hurgronje’s  “Mohammedanism”  (41) 
deserves  very  careful  reading.  Blunt,  “Future  of  Islam”  (74),  Geiger, 
“Judaism  and  Islam”  (83),  Goldziher,  “Mohammedanische  Studien” 
(86)  and  Macdonald,  “Religious  Attitude  and  Life”  (96)  are  other 
indispensable  books. 

(c)  Islam  in  Various  Countries. — Broomhall,  “Islam  in  China”  (23),, 
Wherry,  “Islam  in  India”  (69),  Zwemer,  “Arabia  the  Cradle”  (70), 
Simon,  “Progress  and  Arrest  of  Islam  in  Sumatra”  (163),  and  Hunter, 
“The  Indian  Musalmans”  (219),  together  with  the  monographs  in 
the  Islam  Series  (61),  are  thoughtful  studies. 

(d)  Moslem  Theology. — The  absolutely  basal  book  for  the  thought- 
ful student  of  Islam  is  Goldziher’s  “Vorlesungen”  (85).  A translation 
of  this  was  prepared  for  the  Yale  University  Press  in  1917,  under  the 
title  of  “Mohammed  and  Islam,”  but  was  withdrawn  because  of  defects. 
It  may  be  looked  for,  quite  probably,  in  1918.  The  best  book  in  English 
is  Macdonald’s  “Development  of  Muslim  Theology”  (95).  There  is 
a French  translation  of  Goldziher’s  book. 


XVI.  Selected  References  to  Paragraphs 

The  following  references  are  intended  to  be  of  service  to 
the  student  who  desires  to  study  intensively  any  of  the  num- 
bered sections  of  the  report.  The  figures  and  titles  indicate 
the  sections  referred  to.  They  are  not  exhaustive.  They 
aim  as  a rule  to  direct  the  student  who  is  attempting  to  under- 

132 


SELECTED  REFERENCES  TO  PARAGRAPHS 


Stand  Islam  to  the  literature  most  immediately  available. 
This  literature  -will  in  turn  serve  to  lead  the  way  to  a more 
intensive  study. 

I.  (1.)  The  Environment  of  Islam. — Note  the  bibliographical  refer- 
ences in  Noldeke’s  article  on  the  “Ancient  Arabs”  in  the  Hastings 
“Encyclopedia  of  Religion  and  Ethics”  (251). 

I.  (2.)  The  Character  and  Experience  of  Mohammed. — Muir’s 
“Life”  (57)  is  valuable  as  a basis,  but  must  be  used  guardedly  and 
in  the  light  of  recent  criticism  of  the  traditions.  The  first  lecture  in 
Hurgronje’s  “Mohammedanism”  (41)  discusses  the  unraveling  of 
tradition,  while  Macdonald’s  “Aspects  of  Islam”  (94)  discusses  the 
person  of  Mohammed.  All  biographies  of  the  Prophet  may  be  con- 
sulted. Section  B of  the  Bibliography  mentions  nine  of  them. 

I.  (3.)  The  New  Faith. — See  Margoliouth’s  “Mohammedanism” 
(98)  and  Macdonald’s  “Development”  (95). 

II.  The  Spread  and  Extent  of  Islam. — The  standard  history  is 
Muller’s  “Der  Islam,  etc.”  (58).  It  covers  the  subject  thoroughly. 
Muir’s  “Caliphate”  (56)  is  of  value.  The  various  histories  referred 
to  under  section  B of  the  Bibliography  are  helpful. 

II.  (1.)  The  Three  Missionary  Periods. — Arnold’s  “The  Preaching 
of  Islam”  (22)  and  Zwemer’s  “Islam”  (181)  discuss  these  periods. 

II.  (2.)  The  Explanation. — In  contrast  with  “Preaching”  (22) 
Amir  AH’s  “History  of  the  Saracens”  (21)  gives  a Mohammedan 
explanation  of  Islam’s  development. 

II.  (4.)  Geographical  Extension. — The  various  histories  and  such 
monographs  as  Broomhall’s  “Islam  in  China”  (23)  will  be  helpful. 

II.  (5.)  Racial  Types. — Simon’s  “Progress  and  Arrest”  (163)  is  a 
helpful  monograph  regarding  one  field.  Noteworthy  articles  relating 
to  Northern  Asia  and  Africa  will  be  found  in  the  volumes  of  The 
Moslem  World. 

II.  (7.)  The  Political  Situation. — Eliot’s  (“Odysseus”),  “Turkey  in 
Europe”  (31)  and  Zwemer’s  “Disintegration”  (138)  are  useful  studies. 

III.  The  Development  of  Islam. — The  encyclopedias,  notably  the 
“Encyclopedia  of  Islam”  (250),  have  valuable  articles.  In  the  last- 
mentioned  encyclopedia  look  under  each  technical  term  in  Arabic. 


133 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


III.  (1.)  The  Individual. — See  the  chapter  on  Education  in  Mac- 
donald’s “Aspects”  (94)  with  its  references.  The  best  possible  book 
to  read  is  “The  Thousand  and  One  Nights”  with  Lane’s  notes  (92) 
passim. 

III.  (2.)  The  Fatnily. — Fahmy’s  “La  Condition”  (78),  Perron’s 
“Femmes  arabes”  (230),  “Haji  Baba”  (226),  the  books  by  Madame 
Ruchdi  Pacha  (234,  235),  Zwemer’s  “Childhood”  (246)  and  all  the 
books  written  by  women,  who  were  able  to  get  below  the  surface  of 
Mohammedan  society. 

III.  (4.)  The  Government. — Gibbon’s  “Foundations  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire”  (35)  discusses  at  second  hand,  but  ably,  one  phase  of 
this  subject. 

III.  (5.)  Constitutional  Development. — Macdonald’s  “Development” 
(95),  and  Hurgronje’s  “Mohammedanism”  (41),  take  this  up  most 
helpfully. 

IV.  (1.)  Allah. — Zwemer’s  “Doctrine  of  God”  (110),  Gardner’s 
“Quranic  Doctrine  of  God”  (82),  Gairdner’s  articles  scattered  through 
The  Moslem  World,  his  “Muslim  Idea  of  God”  (80)  and  Macdonald’s 
articles  on  “Allah”  in  the  “Encyclopedia  of  Islam”  (250),  and  in  the 
“Encyclopedia  of  Religion  and  Ethics”  (251). 

IV.  (2.)  Created  Beings. — Read  “The  Thousand  and  One  Nights” 
(92),  passim.  Herklots’  “Qanoon”  (88)  has  much  regarding  magic 
and  jinn.  Macdonald’s  “Religious  Attitude”  (96),  lectures  1-5,  with 
the  references,  covers  the  subject  broadly. 

IV.  (3.)  Nature  of  Mankind. — Gardner’s  “Doctrine  of  Sin”  (82)  is 
helpful. 

IV.  (4.)  Salvation. — Gardner’s  “Quranic  Doctrine  of  Salvation” 
(82). 

IV.  (6.)  Sacred  Books. — The  various  Histories  of  the  Koran  and 
the  Introductions  will  be  valuable.  Nbldeke’s  “Sketches”  (59)  and 
Macdonald’s  “Attitude”  (96),  especially  the  chapter  on  Sacred  Books, 
are  directly  useful. 

IV.  (8.)  Day  of  Judgment. — Gautier’s  translation  in  French  of  al- 
Ghazzali  (6)  affords  a fine  description  of  the  Day  of  Judgment. 

V.  Religious  Practices. — Lane’s  “Modern  Egyptians”  (222),  Sell’s 
“Faith  of  Islam”  (104)  and  the  article  “Worship”  in  Hughes’  “Dic- 
tionary of  Islam”  are  very  illuminating. 


134 


SELECTED  REFERENCES  TO  PARAGRAPHS 


V.  (1.)  Faith. — Klein’s  “Religion  of  Islam”  (90)  is  a good  general 
book  to  read.  See  also  articles  in  the  “Encyclopedia  of  Islam”  (250) 
on  tman  and  iqrar  (not  yet  appeared). 

V.  (2.)  Worship. — Lane’s  “Modern  Egyptians”  (222)  is  full  of 
suggestion.  Hurgronje’s  “Mekka”  (218)  is  good.  Hughes’  “Dic- 
tionary of  Islam  (256)  may  be  consulted  under  the  various  rubrics. 

V.  (3.)  Fasting. — See  Lane’s  “Modern  Egyptians”  (222)  for  vivid 
illustrations  of  the  methods  of  fasting. 

V.  (5.)  Pilgrimage. — Burckhardt’s  “Travels  in  Arabia”  (206)  and 
Burton’s  “Personal  Narrative”  (208)  are  classics  on  the  subject.  Hur- 
gronje’s “Mekka”  (218)  is  more  recent.  Ralli’s  “Christians  at  Mecca” 
(233)  should  also  be  noted. 

V.  (6.)  Jihad. — Arnold’s  “Preaching”  (22)  and  Hurgronje’s  “Mo- 
hammedanism” (41)  have  opposing  views  of  its  value.  Note  the 
“Encyclopedia  of  Islam”  (250)  under  “Djihad.” 

VI.  (1.)  Canon  Law. — Macdonald’s  “Development”  (95)  and  Hur- 
gronje’s “Mohammedanism”  (41)  discuss  this  subject  fully.  The  “En- 
cycloj)edia  of  Islam”  (250)  has  valuable  articles  on  the  various  techni- 
cal themes. 

VI.  (2.)  (a.)  Free  Will. — The  references  given  under  VI  (1)  are 
adequate. 

VI.  (2.)  (b.)  Allah  and  His  Qualities. — The  references  given 
under  IV  (1)  apply  here  also. 

VI.  (2.)  (c.)  Doctrine  of  the  Koran. — The  student  may  consult  the 
various  “Introductions”  to  the  Koran.  Sell’s  “Historical  Develop- 
ment” (105)  and  Noldeke’s  “Geschichte”  (260)  are  valuable. 

VI.  (2.)  (d.)  Anthropomorphisms. — One  who  wishes  to  go  into 
this  subject  should  read  Goldziher’s  “Die  Zahiriten.” 

VII.  (1.)  Shiites. — Morier’s  “Haji  Baba”  (226)  throws  much  light 
upon  the  relations  of  Shiites  and  Sunnites.  Goldziher  (85)  is  a 
mine  of  exact  information.  Merrick’s  rare  book  (55)  is  of  much 
value.  ,Sykes’  “Glory  of  the  Shia  World”  (133)  is  the  best,  readily 
available,  recent  book. 

VII.  (2.)  Mysticism. — Nicholson’s  “Mystics  of  Islam”  (125) 
Garnett’s  “Mysticism  and  Magic”  (121),  Macdonald’s  “Religious  Atti- 


135 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


tude”  (96),  as  well  as  Chapter  11  of  Simon’s  “Progress  and  Arrest” 
(163),  are  excellent  books,  all  available. 

VII.  (3.)  Wahhabism. — Burckhardt’s  “Notes”  (207)  and  Pal- 
grave’s  “Narrative”  (227)  are  the  best  available  sources  of  informa- 
tion. See  also  the  encyclopedias. 

VII.  (4.)  Babism. — Notice  the  footnote  on  page  67. 

VII.  (5.)  Ahmadiya. — Walter’s  book  with  its  references  (134)  is 
reasonably  exhaustive  on  this  subject. 

VII.  (6.)  N eo-Mutazilites. — Amir  AH  is  their  spokesman.  Notice 
his  various  books  (20,  21,  71). 

VIII.  Moslem  Types. — Study  “Vital  Forces”  (172). 

IX.  What  Christianity  May  Add. — This  is  a subject  for  meditation 
rather  than  reading.  Simon’s  “Progress  and  Arrest”  (163),  in  Part 
III,  approaches  the  problem  from  this  angle. 

IX.  (8.)  Womanhood. — Note  the  various  volumes  written  by 
women  about  women  in  Islam  (211,  231,  234,  235,  240),  also  the  two 
Conference  reports  (242,  243),  and  such  works  as  Perron’s  “Femmes 
arabes”  (230),  or  Jessup’s  “Women  of  the  Arabs”  (221). 

X.  (9.)  Childhood. — See  Zwemer’s  “Childhood”  (246)  with  its 
references. 


XVII.  Library  Hints  for  the  Missionary  Scholar 
WHO  USES  Arabic 

Just  as  a knowledge  of  Sanskrit  is  of  great  value  to  the 
missionary  of  scholarly  tastes  who  seeks  to  become  a real 
interpreter  of  religion  to  the  Hindu  mind,  so  a good  knowl- 
edge of  Arabic  is  of  value  to  the  thorough  student  of  Islam. 
The  following  represents  the  sort  of  information  which  such 
a student  is  glad  to  have  at  his  command.  It  has  been  con- 
tributed to  this  report  by  Professor  Duncan  B.  Macdonald, 
D.D.  of  the  Hartford  Theological  Seminary. 

The  student  who  uses  Arabic  should  have,  for  his  study  of  the 
Koran,  besides  his  ordinary  dictionary  and  grammar,  a native  com- 
mentary (Baidawl  by  preference),  Fliigel’s  concordance,  ar-Raghib 


136 


LIBRARY  HINTS  FOR  THE  MISSIONARY  SCHOLAR 


al-Isfahani’s  “Dictionary  of  the  Koran,”  called  Al-Mufradat  ft  gharlb 
al-Qur’dn  (there  is  a good  vocalized  ed.,  Cairo,  A.  H.,  1324)  and 
Palmer’s  translation.  Other  good  commentaries  are  the  Kashshdf  of 
Zamakhshari,  which  is  the  basis  of  Baidawl,  the  Tafsir  of  RazI  and 
the  Tafsir  of  Tabari.  Zamakhshari  was  a Mutazilite  and  a great 
grammarian.  Razi  was  a theologian  and  his  book  is  a topical  treat- 
ment of  theology;  Tabari’s  commentary  is  a compilation  of  exegetical 
traditions. 

For  his  study  of  Moslem  literature,  civilization,  history  and  theology 
certain  works  are  of  prime  importance.  One  would  mention  as  a 
storehouse  of  folk-lore,  tradition,  popular  medicine,  lexicography, 
legends,  racial  psychology  and  law,  al-Damiri’s  Haydt  al-Hayawdn, 
which  professes  to  be  a zoological  lexicon.  An  English  translation  by 
Col.  A.  S.  G.  Jayakar  (London,  Luzac,  1906),  covering  so  far  about 
three-quarters  of  the  whole  work,  makes  the  original  generally  ac- 
cessible. Both  the  text  and  the  translation  should  be  in  every  good 
Arabic  library.  There  are  several  Oriental  editions.  Jayakar’s  trans- 
lation is  generally  excellent,  but  needs  to  be  compared  with  the  origfinal, 
the  details  and  flavor  of  which  it  occasionally  misses. 

Another  work  of  much  value  is  Ibn  Khaldun’s  history,  Kitdh  al 
Tbdr  (Book  of  Examples),  the  most  truly  scientific  book  in  the  Arabic 
language,  covering  all  phases  of  Moslem  civilization  and  intended  by 
the  author  to  be  a history  of  the  world.  Its  preface,  the  Muqaddima, 
was  translated  in  1862-68  into  French,  with  the  title  “Les  Prolego- 
menes  d’  Ibn  Khaldoun”  (3  vols.,  Paris,  Imprimerie  Imperiale).  This 
translation  and  the  original  text  should  be  in  every  Arabic  library. 
There  is  a very  complete  Paris  edition  of  the  text  and  several  Oriental 
editions.  Of  the  latter  the  Egyptian  editions  are  to  be  preferred  to 
those  of  Beirut. 

The  student  should  have  accessible,  also,  to  be  used  along  with 
Juynboll’s  “Handbuch”  (No.  89),  such  a textbook  of  canon  law  as 
Ibrahim  al-Baijuri’s  Hashiya  (detailed  comment)  on  the  Shark  (run- 
ning commentary)  of  Ibn  Qasim  on  the  Main  (fundamental  text)  of 
Abu  Shuja‘.  There  are  several  Cairo  editions,  and  there  is  an  analysis 
in  Macdonald’s  “Development,”  pp.  351-357. 

He  should  read  as  much  as  possible  of  the  Ihyd  ‘ulum  ad-din  by 
al-Ghazzali.  There  are  many  Oriental  editions,  one  in  ten  volumes 
with  a very  full  commentary,  Ithaf  as-sdda,  by  the  Sayyid  Murtada. 

He  should  read  also  in  the  “Stories  of  the  Prophets”  {Qisas  al- 
anbiyd)  by  ath-Tha‘labi,  of  which  there  are  many  Oriental  editions. 

137 


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It  is  a history  of  revelation  in  biographical  form  and  a historical  com- 
mentary on  the  Koran. 

Illuminating  Muslim  creeds  are  the  “Articles  of  Belief”  {‘Aqa'id) 
of  an-Nasafi,  of  which  there  is  a trustworthy  edition  with  several  com- 
mentaries, especially  one  by  at-Taftazani,  Cairo,  A.H.,  1321,  and  the 
“Sufficiency”  (Kifdya)  of  al-FadalT,  of  which  there  are  several  Cairo 
editions  with  the  commentary  of  al-Baijuri. 

Ability  to  quote  a few  lines  from  the  Mu‘allaqdt,  Arab  poems  of  the 
pre-Islamic  period,  will  be  of  the  first  value  toward  giving  a mission- 
ary standing  as  a man  of  education  and  literary  refinement.  There  are 
many  editions,  some  with  commentaries. 

A good  short  history  is  the  Fakhrl  of  Ibn  at-Tiqtaqa,  edited  by 
Ahlwardt,  Gotha,  1860;  by  Derenbourg,  Paris,  1895,  and  at  Cairo, 
A.H.,  1317,  which  extends  to  the  fall  of  Bagdad.  There  is  a French 
translation  by  E.  Amar,  Paris,  1910.  Another  is  the  Arabic  text  of 
which  No.  9 is  a translation,  ed.  by  de  Goeje,  Leyden,  1866,  and  at 
Cairo,  A.  H.,  1319. 

There  are  several  good  and  cheap  Oriental  eds.  of  the  Arabic 
text  of  No.  43,  Ibn  Khallikan’s  “Biographical  Dictionary”  (Wafaydt 
ol-Aydn). 

A good  manual  of  the  constitution  of  the  Muslim  state  is  the  Ahkam 
as-sultdnlya  by  al-Mawardi,  ed.  by  Enger,  Bonn,  1853,  and  at  Cairo, 
A.H.,  1298.  There  is  a partial  translation  by  Leon  Ostrorog,  “Traite 
de  droit  public  musulman,”  Paris,  1901. 

For  the  life  of  Mohammed  the  fundamental  text  is  Ibn  Hisham 
(No.  8).  With  it  should  be  taken  the  Sahth  of  BukharT  (No.  3)  and 
whatever  other  collections  of  traditions  may  be  accessible.  With  these 
should  be  used  anything  by  Goldziher  and  Lammens. 

The  standard  European  Arabic  grammar  is  that  of  William  Wright, 
3rd  ed.  2 vols.  Cambridge,  1896,  1898.  Pp.  xiv,  318,  xx,  450.  A 
still  fuller  treatment  of  grammar  can  be  had  by  combining  De  Sacy’s 
Grammaire  arabe,  2nd  ed.  2 vols.  Paris,  1831.  Pp.  xx,  608,  xii,  698, 
with  Fleischer’s  elaborate  commentary  on  the  same  in  his  Kleinere 
Schriften,  vol.  i,  pp.  1-844.  Oriental  grammars  are  multitudinous.  The 
admirable  little  Ajurrumlya  is  a good  introduction  to  their  method  and 
the  two  most  useful  larger  books  are  probably  the  Alfiya  of  Ibn  Malik 
with  the  commentary  of  Ibn  ‘Aqil  (ed.  Dieterici,  Leipzig,  1850,  and 
very  often  in  the  East),  and  the  Mufassal  of  Zamakhsharl  (2nd  ed. 
Broch,  Christiania,  1879,  and  in  the  East). 


138 


LIBRARY  HINTS  FOR  THE  MISSIONARY  SCHOLAR 


In  lexicons  there  are  two  single-volume  books  which  can  be  recom- 
mended: Salmone  (No.  263)  and  Hava  (No.  254). 

Beyond  these  handy  volumes  the  only  recourse  is  to  the  great  but 
unfinished  work  of  E.  W.  Lane  in  8 vols.  (London,  Williams  and 
Norgate).  The  gaps  in  Lane  can  be  filled  to  a certain  extent  from 
H.  Dozy’s  “Supplement  aux  Dictionnaires  Arabes’’  (2  vols.,  Leyden, 
E.  J.  Brill),  an  invaluable  work,  especially  for  mediaeval  Arabic,  but 
very  rare  and  very  dear.  Every  statement  in  Freytag  (“Lexicon 
Arabico-Latinum,”  4 vols.)  must  be  verified.  Of  the  native  lexicons, 
the  Qatnus  and  the  Sahah  have  now  been  pushed  aside  by  the  Lisan 
al-arab  (in  20  parts;  binds  in  5 thick  vols.)  and  by  the  Taj  al- arils 
no  vols.),  a commentary  on  the  Qdmus  and  the  foundation  of  Lane’s 
“Lexicon.”  There  are  several  others,  but  Arabic  is  still  incompletely 
booked  in  them  and  also  words  and  meanings  may  be  found  in  some  of 
the  smaller  of  them  that  have  not  been  taken  up  into  the  larger.  Of 
modern  compilations  the  Muhit  aUMuhit  of  Butrus  al-Bustani  (2  vols., 
Beirut,  1867-1870)  is  still  useful  for  the  width  of  its  vocabulary, 
classical,  mediaeval  and  modern. 

A dictionary  of  a different  kind  but  of  the  greatest  use  to  the  serious 
student  is  the  “Dictionary  of  Technical  Terms  used  in  the  Sciences  of 
the  Musalmans,”  edited  by  Sprenger  and  Lees  in  the  “Bibliotheca 
Indica”  (2  vols.,  together  pp.  72,  1564,  Calcutta,  1862).  It  is  a modern 
compilation  in  Arabic  with  additions  in  Persian  and  is  the  best  single 
key  which  we  have  to  the  scholastic  sciences  of  Islam.  The  Kitdh 
at-ta‘rifat  (Book  of  Definitions)  by  Jurjani  (many  eds.)  is  small  but 
good. 


XVIII.  Library  Hints  for  the  Missionary  Scholar 
WHO  USES  Persian 

The  missionary  to  Persian  speaking  peoples  requires  re- 
search tools  of  his  own.  The  following  statement  has  been 
prepared  by  Professor  M.  H.  Ananikian  of  the  Kennedy 
School  of  Missions. 

1.  Dictionaries. — The  student  who  is  beginning  to  use  Persian 
will  find  Palmer’s  concise  Persian  Dictionary  (London,  1876)  indis- 
pensable. Berge’s  “Dictionnaire  Persan-Franqais”  (Leipzig,  1869) 
is  helpful.  Each  work  is  limited  in  scope.  The  older  scholar  will  use 


139 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


Steingass’s  recension  of  the  old  Johnson-RichardscJn  lexicon,  a com- 
prehensive work  but  far  from  perfect.  Vuller’s  “Lexicon  Persico- 
Latinum”  quotes  copiously  from  native  and  Europ>ean  authorities. 
Wollaston’s  “English-Persian  Dictionary”  (London,  1889)  is  reliable. 
Much  difficulty  arises  from  the  presence  in  Persian  of  many  words 
derived  from  Turkish  or  Persian  dialects  and  of  Arabic  words  used 
in  Persian  in  a more  or  less  modified  sense.  Redhouse’s  “Turkish- 
English  Lexicon”  (London,  1890)  often  becomes  a convenient  guide 
to  the  solution  of  such  problems.  Among  the  many  Persian  lexicons 
the  Burhdni-qdti‘,  the  Bahdrl-i-Ajami  and  the  F arhang-i-J ahangiri  may 
be  mentioned  with  approval. 

2.  Grammars. — For  Westerners  the  classical  grammar  is  still 
Lumsden’s  two  clumsy  volumes.  There  is  an  excellent  grammar  by 
J.  T.  Platts  in  two  volumes,  or  in  a one  volume  edition  by  Rankin 
(Oxford  University  Press).  Mirza  Mohammed  Ibrahim’s  “Gram- 
mar of  the  Living  Persian  Language”  (also  in  an  improved  German 
edition  by  Fleischer)  and  Salemann  and  Shukovski’s  “Persische 
Grammatik”  in  the  Porta  Linguarum  Orientalium  series  deserve  men- 
tion. For  the  study  of  modem  (conversational,  official,  journalistic) 
Persian,  not  excluding  the  classical  language,  the  student  is  largely 
dependent  on  St.  Clair  Tisdall’s  “Modern  Persian  Conversation- 
Grammar”  (Heidelberg,  1902).  The  native  grammarians,  of  which 
the  Ferheng  i Reshidi  (ed.  by  Splieth,  Halle,  1846)  is  one  of  the  best 
known,  are  more  interesting  than  useful  to  the  ordinary  student. 

3.  History  of  Literature. — The  Britannica  gives  an  excellent  gen- 
eral survey  by  Hermann  Ethe  (see  under  “Persia,”  9th  and  11th  edi- 
tions) and  a large  number  of  articles  on  the  important  poets  under 
their  names.  Further  in  the  “Litteraturen  des  Ostens”  series  (vol. 
8)  Paul  Horn  offers  a short  sketch  of  the  development  of  Persian 
literature.  The  best  works  of  some  extent  on  the  subject  are  Her- 
mann Ethe’s  “Neupersische  Litteratur”  in  Geiger-Kuhn’s  “Iranische 
Philologie”  and  E.  G.  Brown’s  very  interesting  “Literary  History  of 
Persia.”  The  latter,  of  which  only  two  volumes  have  appeared  (cov- 
ering to  the  14th  century),  is  really  an  intellectual  history  of  Persia. 
The  student,  after  acquiring  a sound  knowledge  of  the  grammatical 
forms  of  Persian  and  Arabic,  should  proceed  to  the  analytical  study  of 
Sa'di’s  “Gulistan.”  Platts’  edition  offers  a good  text,  an  excellent 
vocabulary  and  tables  of  the  metres.  He  who  has  mastered  both  the 
prose  and  poetry  of  this  book  has  not  only  learned  Persian,  but  also 


140 


LIBRARY  HINTS  FOR  THE  MISSIONARY  SCHOLAR 


a good  deal  about  Eastern  thought,  life  and  manners.  From  Sa'di  to 
Jami',  Hafi,  Jalal-ad-DIn  Rumi,  Nizami  and  Firdausi  is  only  a short 
step.  Griinert’s  lithographed  “Neupersische  Chrestomathie”  offers  a 
fairly  good  choice  of  graded  reading  matter  with  a good  vocabulary 
and  analysis  of  metres.  The  Persian  translation  of  the  “Arabian 
Nights”  uses  a very  good  prose  style  on  closely  and  badly  lithographed 
pages.  The  student  will  find  in  Ethe’s  “Neupersische  Litteratur”  a 
reliable  guide  to  the  popular  fables  and  stories. 

4.  History  and  Travel. — The  best  general  introduction  again  is 
the  article  “Persia”  in  the  Britannica,  11th  edition.  The  similar  article 
in  the  9th  edition  was  written  by  great  scholars  and  is  still  of  great 
value  and  interest.  For  the  ancient  history  of  Persia,  the  more  promi- 
nent authorities  are  Eduard  Meyer,  Justi  (in  Geiger-Kuhn,  2nd 
volume)  emd  Prasek.  Hall’s  “Ancient  History  of  Western  Asia” 
gives  an  excellent  survey  of  the  whole  situation.  Sykes’  recently 
published  “History  of  Persia”  (2  vols.,  London,  1915)  covers  also 
the  Muhammedan  period  down  to  our  times  and  is  most  highly  recom- 
mended. For  the  Muhammedan  Period,  besides  Sykes,  the  authori- 
ties are  the  Britannica  article  (9th  and  11th  eds.)  and  Aug.  Muller’s 
“Der  Islam.”  But  Malcolm’s  classical  “History  of  Persia”  still  holds 
a unique  place.  For  dates  and  dynasties  see  Lane-Poole’s  “Mohamme- 
dan Dynasties.” 

Browne’s  “A  Year  among  the  Persians”  and  Morier’s  most  enter- 
taining “Haji  Baba”  are  probably  the  best  descriptions  of  the  land 
and  the  peoples. 

5.  Religious  Literature. — The  religious  literature  of  Persia  has  re- 
ceived little  and  one-sided  attention  in  European  circles.  The  most 
popular  and  practical  commentary  on  the  Koran  in  Persian  is  the 
Mowahib  ‘alliyya  by  Husayn  Ibn  ‘All  al-Wa‘iz.  The  Persians  have 
their  own  sets  of  Hadith.  Of  these  the  Hayat  al-Qulub  has  been 
translated  into  English  by  J.  L.  Merrick  under  the  title  of  the  Life 
and  Religion  of  Mohammed  (Boston,  1850),  See  No.  57  in  the 
bibliography. 

Generally  speaking,  both  systematic  theology  (Kalam)  and  law 
(Fiqh)  are  usually  treated  in  the  Arabic  language,  and  popular  books 
in  Persian  on  these  subjects  seem  to  be  less  accessible  than  in  Turk- 
ish. Further  Shi'ite  piety  and  religious  literature  revolve  mostly 
around  the  cult  of  ‘All  and  the  rights  and  virtues  of  his  descendants. 
The  student  should  begin  with  Goldziher’s  last  lecture  in  his  “Vorle- 


141 


PRESENTING  CHRISTIANITY  TO  MOSLEMS 


sungen  iiber  den  Islam,”  and  add  to  this,  perhaps,  the  article  on 
Shi‘a  in  Hughes’  “Dictionary  of  Islam.”  As  Shi'ite  theology  is  Mu‘ta- 
zilite  in  origin,  Galland’s  “Essai  sur  les  Mo‘tazelites”  (Geneva,  1906) 
may  be  read  with  profit.  The  most  important  source  on  the  Mu'tazila 
is  Ibn  al-Murtada’s  Kitab  al-milal  zval-nihal.  The  chapter  on  the 
Mu'tazila  was  separately  edited  by  T.  W.  Arnold,  Leipzig,  1903. 

Sufiism  has  almost  become  the  specialty  of  the  Persians  whose 
poetic  literature  and  philosophical  spirit  are  permeated  with  all  shades 
of  mysticism.  From  the  nature  of  the  subject  a general  introduction 
that  will  do  justice  to  it  as  a whole  is  practically  impossible.  Yet  see 
R.  A.  Nicholson’s  “Mystics  of  Islam”  in  the  Quest  Series  (129).  The 
student  will  find  a good  introductory  textbook  in  al-Ghazzali’s  Kimi'yd- 
i-sa'adat  (translated  into  English).  But  the  most  important  Sufi 
work  in  Persian  is  Jalal  ad-Dln  Rumi’s  Mathudis.  The  first  book  of 
this  was  translated  into  English  by  Redhouse  and  the  second  by  Pro- 
fessor C.  E.  Wilson  (London,  1910)  ; selections  from  the  whole  cycle 
are  given  by  Whinfield  in  Triibner’s  Oriental  Series.  Next  to  Jalal, 
ad-Din  comes,  perhaps,  the  poems  of  his  friend,  Shams-i-Tabrizi  (ed. 
by  R.  S.  Nicholson).  Among  the  innumerable  mystic  treatises  (both 
general  works  and  textbooks  of  dervish  orders)  we  may  mention 
Jami‘’s  Lawa’ih,  translated  by  Whinfield  and  Mirza  Muh-Kazvinl 
(London,  1906). 

On  Babism  and  Bahaism  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  E.  G. 
Browne’s  article  in  Hastings’  “Encyclopedia  of  Religion  and  Ethics” 
(2d  vol.)  and  the  same  author’s  earlier  volume  on  the  same  subject. 
Browne’s  article  is  also  a good  guide  to  the  literature  of  these  move- 
ments as  far  as  Persia  is  concerned.  The  later  developments  of 
Bahaism  do  not  belong  to  Persia  proper. 


142 


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